Cold Dawn and the Mind of Kissinger
Allison, Graham
Cold Dawn and the Mind of Kissinger by Graham Allison Let us “discontinue talking so specifically about Soviet military hardware; such matters need not concern our civilian colleagues.”...
...Kissinger identifies it as the concept of peace...
...Only high-ranking representatives of major agencies with important stakes had a “need to know...
...To use these bureaucracies without letting their interests dominate the final result-Kissinger saw that as the challenge...
...That a Soviet military representative could suggest to an American delegate the possibility of negotiating such “military matters” as Minuteman and Graham Allison teaches government at Harvard...
...Profound policy thrives on perpetual creation, on a constant redefinition of goals...
...On relations with the Soviet Union, he hoped for some agreement on “principles of international conduct...
...What was the legitimating principle of this international order...
...Graubard says yes, and his claim deserves to be taken seriously...
...1973 took it, but not lying down...
...The SALT agreements do go “to the knuckle of security,” as Newhouse says...
...Like all collections of people, these bureaucracies develop their own conceptions of what is best for the country...
...He pronounces...
...That they should not have thought...
...One suspects Graubard is teasing, but he isn’t...
...It also keeps his account interesting...
...When the Nixon Administration took office, ABM was emerging as a major target for a coalition of arms controllers, senators, scientists, and citizens concerned about living next door to a nuclear warhead...
...As a result he has produced the fullest account yet available of the way the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policy system actually works-far richer, for example, than Jack Anderson’s revelations about the “tilt” toward Pakistan...
...His central argument can perhaps be summarized briefly in three propositions: 1) Henry Kissinger is unique among individuals who have held high government positions in the U. S., perhaps most of all because of his intellectual character...
...In the American pluralist system, however, power is so dispersed that successful, sustained, programma tic activity requires considerable cooperation and consensus...
...The agreement in question could conceivably force them to diet or even starve...
...italics added] That someone with these views should treat the national security bureaucracy as he did in ‘SALT is-as Graubard would have it-really not remarkable...
...He declares: The spirit of policy and that of bureaucracy are diametrically opposed...
...Had this leak of Administration super-secrets not come from the highest sources, we would undoubtedly hear charges that their publication betrays confidences of certain communications with the Soviet Union, reveals to our enemies the innermost workings of the American negotiating process, and thus harms the national security...
...Graubard restricts himself to exposition of Kissinger’s writings, deliberately withholding his own comments and judgments...
...The other starts from the proposition that the best source of insights about current American foreign policy is not locked up in some safe in Washington (or even hidden in a tape vault...
...Maybe Jefferson’s proposals could legitimate an American equivalent of Mao’s Cultural Revolution...
...Why, after signing the SALT agreements limiting strategic arms, did the U. S. government turn around and announce an increase in spending on strategic weapons, including speed-up development of a new nuclear submarine, Trident...
...ACDA is in the business of arms control and disarmament...
...Why Kissinger is Different ~~ Graubard’s purpose, however, is not to remind us that old dogs seldom learn new tricks, or to pluck pointers from the past that predict the future...
...The CIA thought it had a monopoly on answers to such questions...
...He marshals impressive evidence for his proposition...
...it certainly was ingenious...
...In March, 1971, after literally tens of thousands of man-hours of study of the ABM problem, the Verification Panel met to decide what Smith should propose to the Russians...
...Washington rumor has it that Kissinger told his staff to give Newhouse the dope...
...Admiral Moorer supported the proposed agreement giving the Soviets a large numerical advantage in SLBMs, while ACDA Director Gerard Smith expressed reservations about formalizing this disadvantage...
...The work of the Committee was done by a working group, chaired by Larry Lynn, a Kissinger deputy, and a series of task forces with representatives from all relevant agencies...
...The essence of policy is its contingency...
...Unhitched from the bureaucracy, a President and his chosen few can go to China or sign a SALT agreement...
...by what criteria are strategic arms to be judged sufficient...
...Even for general readers who want an introduction to the mysterious world of strategic concepts and acronyms-stability and counterforce, MIRV and SLBM-Cold Dawn is hard to beat...
...On relations with China, he took a very positive position, urging “wide-ranging exploration...
...Nor were the negotiations invulnerable to attack from those who feared the Administration would give away too much, as Senator Jackson showed when the President brought home the treaty...
...For better or worse, he is a man of incorrigibly high expectations...
...In Vienna, Smith put the proposal to Semenov, who rejected it out of hand...
...Again, Newhouse uncoven the intra-national bargaining that precedes any inter-national agreement, in this case a treaty between Kissinger and Admiral Thomas Moorer, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: Kissinger and Admiral Moorer held an exchange that probably settled the SLBM [submarine-launched ballistic missile] issue, even if nothing was formally decided...
...Last but not least, there were the Russians...
...Each government had to find some way of .solving its multilayers of problems while at the same time settling on a point at which the two sides could converge...
...He has done his homework at other agencies and in other capitals...
...In any case, Cold Dawn provides an excellent source of intelligence for officials in the Department of Defense or Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) about what was going on behind the scenes while they were attending a meeting of the committee to coordinate a position on a SALT option and draft a cable to the negotiator in Vienna (or feeling bad because they were excluded from the me e tin g ) . For readers who find issues of nuclear strategy deadly dull, Newhouse cuts through the thickets of technology and terminology to uncover the common ground of all major policy choices: politics...
...The essence of bureaucracy is its quest for safety...
...Not the thousands who with top-secret-plus clearances worked on the studies that fed the task forces of the Verification Panel...
...But as one re-examines Kissinger’s writings with Graubard’s as a tutor, even the second proposition gains credibility...
...SS-9 without involving his civilian colleagues seems hardlf conceivable...
...He has addressed most of the large questions-peace, war, international order, legitimacy, statesmanship, and the like-and not just stated the problem or structured the issues, but declared himself...
...Officials share power but differ substantially about what should be done...
...That journalists and commentators and pundits should not have read...
...It is no accident that most great statesmen were opposed by their ‘experts’ in their foreign offices, for the very greatness of the statesman’s conception tends to make it inaccessible to those whose primary concern is with safety and minimum risk...
...Moorer wanted White House support for speeding up the Trident submarine program...
...Kissingerls works do contain a lot of what Robert Solow has labeled “big think...
...At a second level, each of these issues intersected with interests of major Washington bureaucracies...
...The wonders of Madison Avenue come to Washington...
...In the end, hisjudgment as well as his sources incline him to tell Kissinger’s side of the story...
...Norton...
...Almost in the manner of Kant’s Perpetual Peace, he tries to create and discover an intellectual edifice...
...All those who had worked as full-time employees for the executive branch of the federal government during the previous decade would be honorably discharged, but disqualified from service in the next decade...
...Instead, he argues: Finally, and most importantly, SALT is an internal negotiation...
...This reader is still not fully persuaded...
...His sources obviously include not only the National Security Council staff but Henry Kissinger himself-and some of his enemies, too...
...As his quotations insist, statesmanship must contain a hefty portion of conjecture, contingency, and chance, as the statesman seeks to impose his conception on the underlying forces...
...They must therefore bargain with the advantages at their disposal to achieve their vision of what is right...
...Even the issues Kissinger would keep to himself grind to a halt when he is called elsewhere, as the lack of progress in SALT I1 negotiations shows...
...These individuals are organized in bureaucracies that form the greatest part of the U. S. government’s capacity to identify problems, create programs, choose and act on the innumerable issues it copes with daily...
...An example will serve to illustrate the process...
...They did not even reduce spending on strategic arms...
...The meaning of the exchange between Kissinger and Moorer was clear to those who heard it: The Navy would have Trident, assuming congressional approval, and the President would have the support of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for an SLBM deal that gave the Soviets nearly half again as many missile-carrying submarines as the United States...
...What statesmanship adds to diplomacy, in Kissinger’s view, is conception of goals: a viable vision...
...The President decided and issued instructions to Smith...
...its success is calculability...
...They cannot manage the majority of foreign policy issues, which are pervasive, technical, continuous, and intimately involve domestic interests and agencies...
...What Graubard finds surprising is that journalists and commentators and foreign policy pundits have failed to consider carefully the best source of insights in the city of Washington about current American foreign policy...
...Departing from Russian protocol, Ogarkov broke in and set the matter straight...
...In preparing foreign policy position papers for Nelson Rockefeller’s unsuccessful bid for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968, Kissinger applied his earlier writings to most of the major issues on the foreign policy agenda...
...The book he did not write, but which we sorely need, would analyze Kissinger’s conception of international relations, stating its propositions as precisely as possible, and comparing and contrasting his views with propositions believed by those with competing conceptions...
...its success depends on the correctness of an estimate which is in part conjectural...
...The thesis is subtitled “Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problems of Peace...
...Those views point directly to this style of management in SALT...
...But the two studies converge on a single subject: Henry Kissinger...
...The chairman of the Soviet delegation, Vladimir Semenov, became confused about which of two strategic missiles was the larger: U. S. Minuteman or Soviet SS-9...
...Graubard demonstrates that peace, more specifically a “structure of peace,” was, as Graubard reveals, Kissinger’s preoccupation, going back at least to his Ph.D...
...Without the cooperation of these bureaucracies, it would be impossible to answer the questions above...
...dissertation (which was published as A World Restored...
...Since the New Deal, the U. S. has acquired a “Permanent Government” of several million individuals...
...A number of ACDA officials were committed to the proposal formulated under the Johnson Administration and wanted to move quickly to an agreement-any agreement, their critics charged...
...Kissinger began referring to the nine alternatives as “building blocks” that could be reshuffled to make new packages if necessary-again, widening White House discretion...
...Kissinger tried...
...Some of the key decisions are kept to a very small circle while the bureaucracy happily continues working away in ignorance of the fact that decisions are being made...
...Those who need a simple picture of international politics to hang onto should look elsewhere...
...But from Robert McNamara’s initial efforts to stop ABM and begin negotiating about strategic arms, to Kissinger’s lastminute concessions on submarinelaunched missiles, SALT is a tale of hard bargaining...
...Read Him Like a Book lhe inside story of what President Nixon has dubbed-probably correctlythe most significant arms control agreement in history is fascinating and important...
...Read what Kissinger has written...
...Why did the strategic agreement proposed by the Johnson Administration leave out both MIRV and ABM...
...Instead, he would a c ce p t only analyses of issues, options, and the merits and demerits of each option...
...One agreement limits each side to two ABM sites, thus ratifying the fact that each nation’s population lives as hostage to the other’s nuclear missiles...
...The sources of these top secrets are unimpeachable (moreover, the highest levels of the government short of such vulnerability...
...Many of these issues involved analysis of enemy capabilities and estimates of likely next steps by the Soviet Union...
...There are really two...
...At a third level, SALT touched the nerves of domestic politics...
...Bureaucracy, however, is only one subject, and that not the most important, where Graubard shows Kissinger’s current thoughts and actions to have been foreshadowed by his earlier writings...
...It may, too...
...One is first-rate investigative journalism...
...It is within the two capitals that the critical bargaining-the struggle to grind out positions-lumbers endlessly, episodically on...
...Nixon needed the support of the Joint Chiefs for an agreement freezing Russia’s numerical edge in both ICBM’s and SLBM’s...
...Good administration thrives on routine, the definition of relationships which can survive mediocrity...
...A second treaty freezes the number of strategic offensive missiles each can have during the five-year life of the agreement, explicitly accepting the goals of equality in nuclear forces rather than superiority and eschewing any efforts to gain unilateral advantage...
...As SALT became more active, he created a high-level review committee, the “Verification Panel,” which, like all the high-level review committees, he chaired himself...
...The Administration moved quickly to change the name of the ABM system-from Sentinel to Safeguard...
...As I read them, I couldn’t help recalling Kissinger musing as he left Cambridge for Washington...
...The marrow of SALT is found in the contesting views and clashing organizational interests of the government agencies...
...His aim is much more ambitious...
...Whoever would discover the meaning of President Nixon’s pronouncements about the structure of peace should study carefully A World Restored...
...Citizens elect the President, not the bureaucracy...
...The negotiations clarified familiar, non-negotiable positions, Smith informed Washington of the deadlock, and the cycle began again...
...Graubard’s minimum messagej however, is simply: read what Kissinger wrote...
...Kissinger chose this topic as a vehicle for exploring what he regarded as the prerequisite of peace, namely a stable international order...
...A second book Newhouse did not write would inquire into the significance of SALT...
...italics added] Just months before going to Washington as Assistant for National Security Affairs, he put it as candidly as anyone could ask: Because management of the bureaucracy takes so much energy and precisely because changing course is so difficult, many of the most important decisions are taken by extra-bureaucratic means...
...When bureaucracies are so unwieldly and when their internal morale becomes a serious problem, an unpopular decision may be fought by brutal means, such as leaks to the press or to congressional committees...
...Unbeknownst to the thousands, or the hundreds, or even the tens, Kissinger created a “back-channel” where he negotiated the most serious business...
...Thus the two governments do have an overriding common interest...
...Kissinger has worked a fundamental change in U. S.-Soviet relations...
...These are heady arguments...
...Presumably, their side of the bargaining was no less complicated than our own...
...It is no accident that he has used the same strategy in handling Vietnam, China, and most recently the Middle East...
...Do Kissinger’s pronouncements hang together and form a consistent, distinctive intellectual system...
...the other, an even rarer art form, contemporary intellectual biography...
...The American delegates earnestly presenting a proposal that the backchannel meant as a negotiating ploy for marking time, the Soviet delegates initially impressed with the Americans’ fastidiousness in going through all the motions, then the dawning recognition that their American counterparts did not know-this is a scene Kafka would be proud of...
...The Verification Panel negotiated positions in Washington and communicated them to Smith, chairman of the American SALT delegation...
...If put to the American public in a referendum, I suspect it might win...
...The concluding chapter of his first book, A World Restored, bears the title “The Nature of Statesmanship...
...These organizational preferences often conflict with priorities of a new administration...
...No less than in welfare reform or prisoner rehabilitation, choices about nuclear weapons which could mean quick death for millions of people involve politicians and bureaucrats...
...That Kissinger would bamboozle the bureaucracy in this fashion, paying the costs to reap the benefits, should come as no surprise...
...Yet a sensible SALT agreement presupposed answers to all these questions and more...
...Kissinger’s style in handling SALT thus serves as a good facsimile of his strategy in dealing with bureaucracy...
...The Soviet bureaucracies proved less pliant than their American equivalents, or Dobrynin and Brezhnev less manipulative...
...Such extraordinary happenings, however, are the stuff of the SALT negotiations and treaty, which President Nixon’s Foreign Policy Report identifies as a central pillar in the emerging structure of peace...
...These people are not less publicregarding than other citizens...
...Often the bargaining is not what it seems...
...This mechanism served not only to define basic issues, clarify critical information, and identify options, it also provided a forum in which to consult the relevant interests and to make sure they felt consulted...
...Only the principals attended the meeting...
...2) Kissinger has a grand conception of international relations and an ambition for American foreign policy that differs radically from views held by most of the leaders who have shaped American foreign policy in the post-war world (or who aspire to make policy post-Kissinger...
...they were not even informed...
...The first and third propositions are easier to accept than the second...
...the current crop of unregenerate, disgruntled bureaucrats would be dismissed to the countryside: a new generation schooled in the new consciousness would be recruited to take their places...
...Touching All the Bases Kissinger began by dismantling the previous national security decisionmaking system and discrediting its analyses and conclusions...
...One group of readers is sure to find Cold Dawn disappointing, if not disturbing...
...This private deal gave rise to an unlikely reversal of roles in the formal meeting that followed...
...They were not consulted...
...Rather, it is freely accessible to anyone to consult, an open book, or at least a book that could be opened...
...If Newhouse has “W.W...
...Imagine that...
...Newhouse traces the internal politics that pulled the string of this yo-yo, including an incredible episode where the U. S. proposed that each nation be allowed one ABM installation around its capital and the Soviets accepted only to have the U. S. come back with a proposal for zero ABM...
...He wouldn’t have time to acquire any new ideas on the job, he said...
...Along with the China spectacular and the escape from Vietnam, SALT constituted first-order business for President Nixon’s Assistant for National Security Affairs...
...SALT posed problems on many levels...
...He would simply spend the intellectual capital he had accumulated...
...They discussed the issue fully...
...Instead, underneath all this there were but two, Kissinger and Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, and Kissinger had an informed constituency of only one...
...But unless Kissinger has in mind a program of this sort, his effort to construct a new American foreign policy without genuinely involving the foreign policy bureaucracy is likely to be self-defeating...
...How did Kissinger deal with the national security bureaucracy in SALT and how does this performance reflect the mind of Graubard’s study...
...A nodding acquaintance with Kissinger’s writings would suggest a strong anti-bureaucratic bias...
...Here, Cold Dawn illustrates and is ‘complemented by the argument of a second important book of 1973, Stephen Graubard’s Kissinger: Portrait of a Mind.* In most respects, these two books could not be more different...
...Ogarkov’s plea was triggered by an incident at one of the formal negotiatidg sessions...
...Nevertheless, they may constitute a central pillar in an edifice in Kissinger’s mind...
...The effort to administer politically leads to total irresponsibility, because bureaucracies are designed to execute, not to conceive...
...3) In contrast with the publications of most policy-makers (and would-be policy-ma kers), Kissinger’s scholarly writings state clearly and straightforwardly his full, frank, and deepest views...
...nor the hundreds who participated in formulating the U. S. negotiating position on ABM...
...One study would analyze systematically the effects of decision-making a la Kissinger and Nixon on the quality of the outcome achieved and the strength of the government that remains...
...Administration priorities justifiably claim precedence...
...The proposal has considerable appeal...
...Most of the bargaining takes place behind various veils of secrecy...
...Newhouse assembles all the relevant recent information, and presents it in a lively and readable style...
...Only then could one confidently judge his contention that Kissinger has a substantially different intellectual system, and a better one...
...Where the bureaucracy is a necessary instrument for carrying out policy day-to-day or week-to-week, the bureaucracy must be led and educated and convinced...
...italics added] His most celebrated book, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy, reiterates the point in stronger language: There is an inherent tension between the mode of action of a bureaucracy and the pattern of statesmanship...
...Newhouse tells a tale not of unified governments with grand national interests, negotiating and bargaining subtly for maximum advantage...
...From the heights of grand diplomacy to the depths of technical minutia, this array of issues could boggle any mind...
...But the larger significance of Newhouse’s study stems from its rather full and detailed picture of Kissinger’s management-or mismanagement-of the American national security bureaucracy...
...These agreements do not stop the arms race...
...could compliance with a MIRV ban be verified...
...He directed the bureaucracy to start afresh and produce a comprehensive review of U. S. strategic needs and all strategic implications of SALT...
...Some people said that Kissinger came back from those long conversations in Peking with a secret plan...
...For students of nuclear strategy or American foreign policy, Cold Dawn is must reading: an insider’s account par excellence, instant history at its best...
...Kissinger demanded that the working group and task forces not formulate agency positions or preferences...
...First, SALT combined a congeries of difficult intellectual problems: what is the nature of military power in the nuclear age and how can it be used for political advantage...
...One is chock-full of highly classified information...
...would the U. S. ABM work...
...John Newhouse’s Cold Dawn: The Story of SALT” tells this story and a lot more...
...In hammering out the alternatives and their costs and benefits, the groups generated momentum toward consensus and pressure to get on board, even when specifying such a wide range of options that Kissinger and Nixon retained maximum room for maneuver...
...Nor will issues like Trident procurement, or wheat sales, or international monetary adjustments, or any of the thousand similar problems that make up the bureaucracy’s daily bread be well managed in the absence of strong administration leadership...
...If we take Graubard’s advice and read Kissinger’s writings, we may even see how the construction could be called, with poetic license, a structure of peace...
...So Colonel-General Nikolai Ogarkov, the senior military representative on the Soviet negotiating team, urged a ranking American delegate at the outset of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT...
...To align the agreement and the required domestic support by adjusting the agreement on one side and leading the public on the other, while avoiding a domestic policy debatethis required a deft touch...
...As Graubard points out, he writes less -as historian searching for what really happened, or as social scientist sifting evidence to uncover general regularities, than as philosopher of old...
...Newhouse had such excellent access that at one point we find him complaining about not being privy to conversations between the President and his Assistant for National Security Affairs...
...how do U. S. choices about strategic weapons affect Soviet choices about their nuclear arsenal...
...His unwillingness to draw a sharp line between strategic and technological issues on the one hand, and questions of politics and personalities on the other, reflects the reality of the situation...
...Cold Dawn and the Mind of Kissinger by Graham Allison Let us “discontinue talking so specifically about Soviet military hardware...
...most are more so...
...More careful reading of his writings would find that he has rather precise views about what bureaucracies both can and cannot do...
...It also proposed relocating the missiles away from cities...
...That the chairman of the Soviet delegation, who had been a Deputy Foreign Minister for a decade, could make this elementary mistake-confusing the mammoth SS-9 with the rather small Minuteman-is puzzling...
...According to Newhouse, “The Joint Chiefs bought the package at the price of excluding both a MIRV testing ban and an ABM limit...
...Po wer f ul bur ea ucracies strongly opposed several of the alternatives, but the White House insisted that all options be explored and promised no decisions would be made without further consultation...
...Newhouse *Holt, Reinhart & Winston...
...His skill in exaggerating common interests between the two countries and making these issues the focal point for the leaders of both governments exhibits diplomacy of the highest order...
...When Ambassador Smith tabled the U. S. proposal outlined above-four ABM sites for the U. S. to one for Moscow-Semenov, as Newhouse records it, was mildly intriguing...
...As the formal negotiations began, the Washington circle privy to U. S. positions drew tighter-to minimize leaks, it was said...
...1973 provided the most revealing account available of Kissinger in action, Graubard has etched an unparalleled portrait of Kissinger’s thought and mind...
...Their conceptions are inevitably somewhat parochial, reflecting internal organizational demands as well as the problems their programs are meant to solve...
...Dealing with Careerists What about the book Newhouse did not write...
...For the Air Force, Navy, and Army, strategic weapons are meat and potatoes...
...Whether the bargaining within the U. s. government was harder or easier than the bargaining between the U. S. government and the Soviet Union is an interesting but probably unanswerable question...
...Instead, they have neglected the writings altogether, or been satisfied with unfounded simplifications, as in frequent references to Metternich or Bismarck as Kissinger’s heroes...
...Unlike Smith, who had been kept in the dark, he was informed of the back-channel Kissinger-Dobrynin talks, the locus of the real action...
...These studies yielded nine major alternative proposals for the first round of formal SALT negotiations...
...Indeed, the resemblance at some points looks more like a blueprint than a shadow...
...He would propose an ABM deal that would allow the Russians to keep their one ABM around Moscow, while the U. S. completed the four Safeguard sites for which funds had been appropriated...
...Newhouse now reveals that underneath this superstructure was a first circle...
...Whenever the Russian leaders give the word, a hundred million Americans will die a quick death-and vice versa...
...Thus, the only way secrecy can be kept is to exckde from the making of the decision all those who are theoretically charged with canying it out...
...Perhaps we should resurrect Thomas Jefferson’s proposal to disestablish the government every 25 years...
...According to Kissinger’s reading of the record, Metternich and Castlereagh imposed their principles on Europe and thereby produced a stable international order that made possible a century without war...
...Nevertheless, in the summer of 1969, half the Senate voted against the ABM authorization...
...Digging into Capital As if Newhouse’s revelations were not enough, now Graubard’s studies add insult to injury...
...nor the tens who met in rooms freshly swept of all foreign bugs to decide whether the U. S. would offer an agreement with four ABM sites or zero...
...how many Soviet submarines of which class, “Y,,’o r “G,” or “H,” would be the equivalent of 41 Polaris subs...
...Through the seven rounds of formal SALT negotiations, U. S. proposals on the number of ABM sites to be permitted bobbed from one to zero to four before finally settling on two...
...Could a single mind wrap itself around all that...
...He and the other delegates bargained with the Russians...
...Thus, he understood that the four-to-one proposal was a negotiating ploy...
...In this case, we must hope for our sakes that Kissinger wins his bet...
...The examples go on and on...
...In any case, Graubard’s thesis that Kissinger’s writings merit careful reading and analysis by everyone seriously interested in American foreign policy is certainly right...
...The system he created may have been devious...
...Graubard finds this really remarkable-indeed he remarks on it at great length...
...According to Graubard, the thousands and hundreds and tens of insiders and we outsiders as well have no one but ourselves to blame for our ignorance of Kissinger’s back-channels...
...Of the three issues, SALT afforded the least opportunity for theatrics and the most necessity to confront the technical complexities of issues that mattered vitally to major Washing ton bureaucracies...
Vol. 6 • March 1974 • No. 1
