How Ralph Nader, Tricia Nixon, the ABA, and Jamie Whitten Helped Turn the FTC Around
Wellford, Harrison
How Ralph Nader, Tricia Nixon, the ABA, and Jamie Whitten Helped Turn the FTC Around by Harrison Wellford Like peasant girls in Victorian novels, regulatory agencies have a poignantly...
...That makes him a very rare animal in Washington.’ ¶ Kirkpatrick’s own integrity, and the improvement he has brought in staff morale, are obvious elements in the FTC’s new performance...
...Cornflake Reform While these remedies for deceptive advertising have been heralded by the press, many FTC insiders consider them rather superficial treatment for more fundamental economic problems...
...Dreams, ambition, and appeal all behind them, they dodder along clinging to the family or industry that gives them support...
...Isn’t that a hell of a note...
...Because he did not want to appear to be making a kneejerk response to student critics, he asked the American Bar Association to make its own study of the FTC...
...The Counterattack The big question now is whether the FTC will survive long enough to realize its potential...
...We read the Nader report with all the shock and titillation of a literary society in a nunnery discovering Lady Chatterly ’s Lover,” says one survivor from the old FTC...
...There’s even heavier lobbying on this bill [than on the consumer product safety bill being throttled in the House Rules Committee] .” The National Soft Drink Association has launched a lavishly financed drive for legislative relief...
...While sponsoring this honeymoon with press and public, however, Weinberger resisted or was indifferent to some of the most important structural reforms...
...The broadcasters, even more than the ad agencies, are alarmed out of fear that counter-advertising and corrective ads will scare advertisers away from the TV medium, costing them millions of dollars...
...This contrasts with, for example, the FDA, where the most available-and sometimes the only-source of expertise on a drug or cosmetic issue may be the industry itself...
...Stern’s California office has produced two counter-ads, one against Chevrolet, and the other against the brand-name painkillers...
...With a blind faith in moral suasion, the FTC went for 15 years (before 1969) without checking on erring companies’ compliance with their orders...
...He is not seeking-anything else and everybody knows it...
...This only one reason-to make money...
...As one of the agency’s young Turks remarked ruefully, “Paul Rand Dixon may be the only friend we have left...
...These groups have given the FTC an informed and organized constituency division put it, :‘It’s all very well to (an alternate to its corporate clients) improve the moral quality of adverthat hardly existed before 1969...
...It is really too soon to assess the impact of the FTC’s new look on monopoly and deceptive practices in the business community, but most observers agree that the potential for basic reform is there...
...Never a Captive Beyond outside and inside reforms, however, other elements were necessary for the FTC’s transformation...
...A district court judge recently upheld the oil industry’s claim that the FTC lacks the power to make such rulings...
...With the help of David Buswell, an able director of information, Weinberger quickly repaired the agency’s public image...
...It came out just as a new President was taking office...
...After apologizing for the FTC’s vigor, the President then lamented that, while he had hired its chairman, he could, alas, not fire him for five more years...
...The Black Flag roaches died...
...Now, both the normal newspapers and a new consumer press generally support Kirkpatrick and Pitofsky...
...The agency’s most vulnerable point is the delicate balance of power among the five commissioners...
...The FTC’s lawyers and economists, in seeking out fraud and monopoly in American business as a whole, are less vulnerable to the “deferred bribe” of job offers than an FDA toxicologist who spends all day scrutinizing drug applications from Pfizer and Eli Lilly...
...This program, begun in 1970 in response to petitions from consumer advocates, shifts the burden of proof for complaints about advertising from the customer to the manufacturer...
...Kirkpatrick is the ultimate reasonable man,” an associate said in a recent interview...
...The cereal industry, claiming that the FTC is attacking success and bigness per se, is vigorously resisting...
...If the concept of the trade regulation rule is sustained, it will greatly increase our efficiency...
...Dixon remained, however, as one of the five commissioners...
...Christian White, an FTC attorney on the case, observes: “This ruling will put money directly into the consumer’s pocket...
...Whitten, like tion is a successful program which most of his subcommittee, hails from should be retained...
...The “Cereal” Case...
...But while still hesitant, the FTC has also begun inching toward more fundamental reform of American industry and its protected, non-competitive structure...
...The Coca-Cola bottlers alone have contributed over $200,000...
...The broadcasters and ad agencies have also found solace in the White House...
...To Weinberger’s credit, the purge was relatively non-partisan, despite the demands of a Republican party gorging at the patronage trough for the first time in eight years...
...In doing so, the FTC has implicitly sided With groups like the Stern Community Law Fund, which has started a crusade against “government censorship of the airwaves...
...r h b l i c Confessionals...
...Throughout its past, the FTC found adequate excuse for its inaction in the weakness of the sanctions it could apply...
...He’s so fair it’s frightening...
...Now Wonder Bread has to bring in the charts and data to support its assertion...
...The FTC charges that General Foods, General Mills, Kellogg, and Quaker Oats have artificially inflated prices and reaped excessive profits through restrictive shelf practices in supermarkets, unfair promotion efforts, and proliferation of brand names for virtually identical cereals...
...Thomas Hiura, editor of the Antitrust Law and Economics Review, recently praised Kirkpatrick for beginning to combine legal and economic analysis in developing major cases but concluded that the economic benefits of his case work to date are probably slight, if not zero...
...These charges were not entirely new...
...If it discovered a company bilking consumers, the agency’s main weapon was a “cease and desist” order, which in effect tells the violator to go and sin no more...
...Similar lay jargon...
...Mark Silbergeld, one of the FTC’s critics, notes that with the exception of his vote against corrective advertising, Dixon “has been about as good as any consumer could wish since he left the chairmanship...
...Weinberger was also out of his depth in antitrust economics, claims Mark Silbergeld, a former FTC attorney (a failing which did not distinguish him from other commissioners, however...
...When Kirkpatrick came to the FTC, he had to contend with incompetence, passivity, low morale, and other residues of cronyism-but not with entrenched sappers from one determined industry...
...In the old days, a suspicious viewer would have to disprove Wonder Bread’s claim that it builds strong bodies 12 ways...
...major oil companies ordered to post octane ratings on their pumps...
...Nancy Buc may have spoken for the group when she told Advertising Age that her decision to leave “was largely influenced by the feeling that after Nixon’s reelection, this agency is slated for extinction...
...During the next year, Ocean Spray will have to spend 25 per cent of its advertising money making up for the misconception that its old ads created...
...After looking through some of the data sent in by manufacturers, Moss concluded that “a substantial number of ad claims are backed by nothing but hot air...
...And so, when a regulatory agency well into passive old age suddenly rediscovers its youth, it is an event worth noting...
...Since then, this same correctivead approach has also been used against Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc...
...Pitofsky came to Washington,” Pitofsky said still believes that advertising ethics recently, “I had always heard that and present profit levels can peaceably aggressive enforcement would cause us coexist...
...The cereal case was endorsed by this narrow margin...
...In less than three years, the FTC has changed from the most ridiculed and scorned regulatory agency to one of the most praised...
...Kirkpatrick has managed to construct a progressive majority on most key issues but rumors persist that he will soon leave...
...Resistance to key programs and hostile signals from the White House have recently demoralized the agency...
...Three of his most celebrated appointments were Dr...
...The program, he claims, is help for the FTC has come from bringing about a fundamental change Frank Moss and others on the Senate in the way ads are developed and Commerce Committee...
...While these events are in fact accolades to the FTC’s growing effectiveness as a consumer protector, they are also gloomy portents for its future...
...After a few good years, when they look better than they ever will again, they plunge quickly into old age...
...but local stations, supported by the Federal Communications Commission, have resisted airing them...
...When pressed, American Home Products admitted that the roaches were a specially-chosen strain, resistant to Dieldrin...
...Within the next 12 months, therefore, Nixon may well have the opportunity to appoint two and probably three new commissioners...
...In each case, the industries have felt sufficiently threatened to mobilize ad hoc task forces against the FTC...
...The new FTC has experimented with new remedies which greatly diversify its legal arsenal: .Ad Substantiation...
...Stranger still, the FTC’s revival has come under the supervision of a conservative Republican lawyer, from a Mainline Philadelphia firm, who made his reputation defending an imposing array of corporate clients...
...Old timers naturally claim that the seeds for the FTC’s rebirth were planted long ago, but it is clear that one crucial event occured in 1969...
...The FTC is now getting ready to make Wonder Bread and the aspirin-like family of painkillers (Bufferin, Anacin, Bayer, Excedrin, etc...
...He is very naive about politics but that allows him to stay above it...
...The mood at the FTC, for the first time, is less like a Southern pool hall and more like a vigorous, bustling public interest law firm...
...Before I achieving any of these goals...
...During the same period, other agencies, like the Departments of Justice and Health, Education, and Welfare, also underwent dramatic transformations, but in the opposite direction...
...Even the American Bar Association, slightly less harsh in its criticisms, said shortly afterwards that unless the agency were radically reformed, it should be scrapped...
...Over 200 congressmen have introduced a total of 85 bills to protect the bottlers from the FTC...
...To the public interest bar, a lot about Kirkpatrick’s establishment background looked suspicious...
...TV stations, encouraged by the FCC, refuse to run counter-ads...
...Consumer and environmental groups have prepared advertisements to challenge the see-buy-drive pitch of normal commercials...
...repair the damage done by their bogus claims to be different from normal bread and aspirin...
...Counter- Advertising...
...Paul Rand Dixon, the FTC chairman who had come off in the report as boss-man of the Southern gang, only aggravated the publicity problem by launching a splenetic, equally personal counterattack...
...A bill giving the FTC explicit authority to issue trade regulation rules is now pending in the House...
...The FTC’s recent complaint against the four top cereal manufacturers for illegally monopolizing their market is a hopeful sign that it has had a change of heart...
...especially the pesticide makers, his Robert Pitofsky, in defense of the support of the consumer-protectors is program, argues that “ad substantianot entirely inconsistent...
...Alan Ward, an experienced antitrust lawyer, as head of the Bureau of Competition...
...Will the committees of Moss, Warren Magnuson, and Whitten, the consumer press, and the public interest advocates, the fragile supports of the consumer movement, be able to restrain a second-term President who believes consumerism has passed its peak...
...reasonable accuracy, as “a self-parody of bureaucracy, fat with cronyism, torpid through inbreeding unusual even for Washington, manipulated by the agents of commercial predators, impervious to governmental and citizen monitoring...
...What was new was the go-for-thethroat style of the criticism...
...Other forces have kept up the momentum of reform...
...hasn’t been so...
...Unlike Weinberger, who was aloof and inaccessible, Kirkpatrick literally leaves his door open to staffers with new ideas...
...This program, says Utah’s Senator Frank Moss, has been “successful, indeed startling, in revealing the widespread and flagrant absence of adequate substantiation...
...Klein has an ally in H. R. Haldeman, who, before joining Nixon as chief of his personal staff, spent eight years with J. Walter Thompson, an ad agency which the FTC has cited for deceptive practices...
...Jones’ term expires in 1973 and she will not be reappointed...
...The heart of the FTC’s new approach has been a more creative use of its enforcement powers...
...The press, in a striking change from its earlier boredom with regulatory questions, now pays attention to the FTC...
...Burt Lancaster on TV urging Chevy owners to drive their cars slowly to the nearest dealer to repair faulty motor mounts...
...The first step was to appoint a new chairman, Caspar Weinberger...
...He said it reminded him of stores in Russia with nothing but gray boxes on their shelves...
...The bankers and soft drink bottlers have been particularly effective in Congress...
...Key staff members were even shifted off the case in an attempt to squelch it...
...Weinberger, a former finance director for Reagan’s administration in California, came in as a reform chairman as Paul Rand Dixon’s seven-year term ended...
...The counterattack has been led by broadcasters, ad agencies, bankers, and the soft drink industry...
...They are getting results...
...Recently, the FTC has urged the FCC to allow the counter-ads...
...Dixon’s old “Tennessee gang” I I was sent back to the country, a , process eased by a reorganization plan which eliminated many jobs...
...Since then, unprecedented changes have occurred...
...They see a few recent cases as pointing in the right direction: .The “Octane” Case...
...These changes are all the more striking, considering their political setting...
...automobile industry, concluded that Despite Whitten’s legendary de- it was a “mockery of the FTC” and of fense of the agribusiness industry, the principle of truth in advertising...
...Why has all this happened now, and not five or ten years ago, when consumer protection would presumably have fit in better with the Administration’s policy...
...Pitofsky, the most praised of the new appointees, had served on the ABA study team with Kirkpatrick...
...and the FTC rarely bothered to enforce them...
...the Dieldrin ones survived...
...Basing its authority on implied powers in the Federal Trade Commission Act, the FTC last year ruled that all gas stations would have to post octane ratings of gasoline on their gas pumps...
...In the latter, Burt Lancaster looks over a display of Bufferin and its high-priced, highly advertised competitors, and says, “Buy the least expensive plain aspirin you can find...
...It is little wonder that relieved broadcasters are publicly predicting “calmer seas ahead...
...He turned them into a series of “Good Morning, Caspar,” columns, putting Weinberger on notice that he had better live up to his progressive image with a case against the cereal makers...
...A major FTC weakness in the past is that, in protecting the consumer, it has had to proceed case by case, one manufacturer at a time...
...While Kirkpatrick protests publicly that he intends to carry on, his executive staff is acting like the game is over...
...in fact, it had more calories but no more vitamins or minerals...
...It is now asserting authority to issue trade regulation rules which would ban illegal practices across an industry in one swift stroke...
...As they look back on him, many of his former FTC staff members conclude that his reform efforts were overrated...
...Such cases embarrass the manufacturers, but, as we will see, there is some skepticism as to whether they have yet done much to inform consumers...
...The 1973 appro- Center for Auto Safety, after analyzpriation from Whitten’s subcommittee ing data submitted to the FTC by the was $2 million above the FTC request...
...In this case, if the bank has purchased the obligation in good faith without knowing of the contractor’s blunder, the consumer has to pay the bank even though he has a valid claim against the contractor...
...As one information to the consumer if comsenior staffer in the FTC’s antitrust petition is to have a chance...
...Instead of bothering with such symptoms of an oligopolistic economy, they urge the FTC to make a more basic attack on problems of competition and economic strength...
...FTC staffers, aroused by Weinberger’s press releases, found he did not take the statements as seriously as they did...
...Their report, released in January of that year, probed the agency’s many faults-its blithe reliance on voluntary compliance...
...its byzantine administrative procedures, which consumed 16 years before forcing Carter’s to take the “liver” out of Little Liver Pills...
...The White House, it is rumored, has offered Kirkpatrick a federal judgeship in Philadelphia as inducement for him to step down as chairman...
...Instead of just warning Profile or prohibiting further deceptive ads, the FTC said that future ads would have to publicly admit the past deception...
...Others were more clearly fraudulent: The American Home Products Corporation, which sells Black Flag Roach Killer, demonstrated its product’s worth in an ad comparing Black Flag with another roach killer containing Dieldrin...
...The duration of the bloom is the same for both-three or four years-and so is the permanence of decline...
...Consider the case of a consumer who purchases aluminum siding on credit from a contractor and then discovers it is faulty...
...But Weinberger’s stay was brief...
...which had been claiming that its cranberry juice had more food energy than orange or tomato juice...
...Even in its worst days, it was never a “captured” agency, in the sense that the Interstate Commerce Commission was captured by the railroads or the Federal Aviation Administration by the airlines...
...Lawrence Meyer, chief of policy planning...
...The commissioners’ shaky response to growing business attacks on the agency suggests an answer in the negative...
...When the ABA report came out and confirmed the charges, Nixon was ready to make the FTC the showpiece of a short-lived attempt to preempt the consumer movement...
...Pitofsky...
...The growing political strength of the consumer movement, and the public interest lawyers it has spawned, have also added to the momentum...
...Anticipatory politics, a euphemism in the FTC for total passivity and the fleur du mal of regulatory integrity, is beginning to bloom among the careerists on the FTC staff...
...Whit- feels that it is up to public interest ten has traded his support of con- groups and the press to “translate all sumer programs for urban-liberal this technical jargon into meaningful support of his own legislation...
...We simply don’t have the manpower to proceed case by case...
...The bill to give the FTC specific legal authority to issue trade regulation rules is facing heavy pressure from the bankers’ lobby...
...The emphasis is on winning The surprise source of this congres- cases, not on winning important cases...
...its sensitivity to frauds in the chincilla fur industry and other petty rackets and simultaneous neglect of monopolistic and deceptive practices by the major companies...
...Environment Appropriations Subcom- The critics point out that very mittee, has resisted the Office of little of the product data compiled by Management and Budget’s attempts to the ad substantiation program has tighten the FTC budget...
...Special touches helped -such as naming one of the Nader’s Raiders, Will Taft, as his assistant...
...The bankers have mobilized because of a proposed FTC trade regulation rule that would overturn the “holder in due course” doct~ne...
...As Mark Silbergeld has observed, “The FTC’s regulatory actions, in the area of antitrust and deceptive practices, are not so technical, so intimately involved in the processes of a given industry, that they require much interchange of personnel between regulator and regulatee...
...the octane ruling has been overturned in a district court and must survive a difficult appeal...
...improve product quality, and reduce An indirect, but equally important market concentration, it’s an exercise effect of the consumer movement has in futility...
...during the FTC’s first 50 years, the Hoover Commission, congressional committees, and other bodies had studied the agency at least seven times and the reports were all unfavorable...
...Since 1969, reached the consumer, partly because the agency’s funds have nearly dou- it is too technical or incomplete for bled-from $16.9 million to $30 mil- the layman to make sense of...
...cleared...
...Watch the FTC and see...
...President Nixon’s opposition to the FTC’s new remedies became public knowledge in July when he told 30 starry-eyed broadcasters, at a briefing arranged by Klein, that counter-advertising could destroy brand advertising...
...sional largesse, Jamie Whitten of Mis- The bureau chiefs still prefer the noisy sissippi, chairman of the House Agri- cases which don’t cost anybody too culture, Consumer Protection, and much money...
...But Dixon, who opposed it originally, has adopted the attitude, “we did it, now we have to defend it...
...and Nancy Buc, head of consumer education and a former attorney-advisor to Kirkpatrick, will all be leaving the agency six months from now...
...The major ad agencies have introduced new review procedures to make sure they will not be embarMoral Aspirin rassed or ridiculed for making claims While these pro-consumer shifts in they cannot support...
...This kept the report in the news without rebutting any of its charges...
...The FTC has been frequently criticized for avoiding major cases which, if won, would increase competition in concentrated industries, with maximum impact on the consumer...
...One House source told The Christian Science Monitor: “I’ve never seen anything quite like this lobbying...
...This is still a weak point, and the agency has only one lawyer monitoring compliance...
...and Robert Pitofsky, law professor from New York University, as director of the Bureau of Consumer Protection...
...In the sixties, Commissioner Philip Elman used to complain that the main trouble with the FTC was that no one was interested in it...
...Arguing that a the FTC’s institutional and political primary cause of industry concentrapressures are clearly significant, many tion is consumer ignorance, Pitofsky observers are skeptical about the stresses that the FTC must get more future vigor of the agency...
...ment...
...The single most important reason why the FTC was able to respond the way it did was that, unlike most other regulatory agencies, it was not targeted on any single industry...
...How Ralph Nader, Tricia Nixon, the ABA, and Jamie Whitten Helped Turn the FTC Around by Harrison Wellford Like peasant girls in Victorian novels, regulatory agencies have a poignantly predictable life cycle...
...In 1969, Ralph Nader described the agency, With Harrison Wellford works for Ralph Nader’s Center for the Study of Responsive Law...
...The case is unique in that it does not allege any conspiracy among the firms but instead attacks the basic market structure of the industry...
...This is an issue of the greatest importance to consumers...
...The network’s horror is less surprising than the FTC’s defense of such tactics...
...Herb Klein, the President’s communications director, has publicly stated that he regards the ad substantiation program as “part of an increasing attack on advertising itself-an important part of business life...
...Inside the FTC, the report jarred the normal calm...
...Dixon’s early populist instincts appear to have revived...
...While the business counterattack has been more of a preemptive strike than a reaction to any real damage done to date, it has, in the view of several staffers, scared the daylights out of the Commission...
...Secrecy kills incentives for product improvement, encourages trivial ads, and instills the assumption that the more a product costs, the better it is...
...Just as militant as the broadcasters and bankers are the soft drink companies, whom the FTC has accused of price-fixing by granting exclusive territories to their bottlers...
...If she is correct, the FTC, in the coming months, will provide a vital test of the political muscle and staying power of the consumer movement...
...According to Michael Mann, director of the FTC’s Bureau of Economics, the cereal case is “one of the most exciting breakthroughs in antitrust policy in 50 years...
...While the commissioners were uncertain about fully developing the important antitrust case against the manufacturers, David Vienna, a reporter for The Washington Post, exploited numerous leaks from within the FTC...
...Romance and good timing gave the Nader report an extra boost...
...There is no sign yet that been to make Congress more sympa- corrective ads or ad substantiation is thetic to reform in the FTC...
...Even if enforced, these orders would not get the customer’s money back...
...As Tricia explained events on a recent TV talk show, Nixon got a copy of the report, read it, was impressed, and resolved to reform the agency...
...But in the last two years, the qualms have disappeared and Kirkpatrick has become one of the most widely respected public officials- in Washington...
...A free press requires free advertising, he stated in the same speech...
...He concedes that a rural constituency where the old it has not attracted great crowds of Populist distrust of hucksterism and consumers to the FTC library but monopoly power still runs deep...
...Even if he stays, the balance of power is likely to turn against him...
...Convenient examples were provided by men like the FTC staffer whom Raiders, arriving for a mid-morning appointment, discovered dozing the day away, blanketed by the sports page of The Washington Post...
...The FTC proposes to protect the consumer in such cases, and bills with the same purpose have been introduced in Congress...
...It hasn’t dawned on him that to be cut off at the purse strings by business deceives the consumer for the appropriations committees...
...The evidence of many recent exposes -of agencies like the Food and Drug Administration4 that criticism only brings more firmly-set resistance...
...Michael Mann, an economist from Boston College, as director of the Bureau of Economics...
...MacIntyre has said in effect, “If I had known what it was, I would have voted against it...
...Mainly, they have been turned against the same old abuses as before-frauds, deceptive advertising, the modern manifestations of the P. T. Barnum spirit...
...and the cereal case is mired in legal delay...
...Even with his drawbacks, Weinberger did end public bickering between the commissioners and streamlined the agency’s organization chart...
...Then the first group of Nader’s Raiders, still a fledgling band in Washington, gave the FTC what can only be called a merciless excoriation...
...As Mark Silbergeld put it, in assessing the FTC, “The dog has learned to bark and even takes a nip now and then but will it ever learn to bite...
...Miles came here to turn this agency around and has singlemindedly pursued that goal...
...Whitten’s committee Another attorney remarked on the has not only held useful and relevant advertising cases: “The FTC still takes hearings, but he has consistently given a quantitative approach to law enforceus all we asked for and more...
...Bright young people came in at the top...
...Basil Mezines, the FTC’s executive director...
...the makers of Vivarin telling customers that the “miracle” stimulant’s secret ingredient is actually the caffeine equivalent of two cups of coffee-these are a few of the signs that the Federal Trade Commission, long considered near death, is coming alive...
...When the cereal case came up, Weinberger and at least two other commissioners were lukewarm about it...
...As W ein ber ger’s replacement, Nixon selected Miles W. Kirkpatrick, a Republican lawyer from Philadelphia who had directed the ABA study...
...Several key votes on the FTC’s new departures have been three to two, with Kirkpatrick, Paul Rand Dixon, and Mary Gardiner Jones often lined up against Everette MacIntyre and David Dennison, (although none of the commissioners fits neatly into conservativeprogressive categories...
...Counter-advertising would certainly lose if it came before the Commission now...
...This pressure helped keep the case alive until Kirkpatrick’s arrival...
...The consumer is not obligated to pay, unless the contractor has sold his credit obligation to a bank...
...In 197 1 , after looking at ad substantiation data, the FTC decided that Profile Bread was not as special as the ads had claimed...
...tising by making Bayer Aspirin tell the Several of these advocates have even truth, but if it does not lower prices, joined the FTC staff...
...He has also recruited a staff far above normal administrative caliber for the FTC’s top positions...
...The lion in fiscal 1973...
...As it turned out, one of the President’s daughters, Tricia, was soon to marry one of the Nader’s Raiders, Edward Cox...
...Buoyed by what then seemed to be strong presidential support for reform, Weinberger began cleaning out the dusty comers...
...Within a few pages of the Nader report, the FTC had turned into a 19th-century Tennessee county court house, paralyzed by its inhabitants’ senility and incompetence...
...MacIntyre, who at age 70 must get an annual presidential waiver from compulsory retirement, can be expected to dance the White House tune if he is extended again, which is unlikely...
...The difference this press support could make was revealed in 1970, in an early stage of the cereal case...
...he took office in January, 1970, and eight months later defected to the Office of Management and Budget...
Vol. 4 • October 1972 • No. 8
