Money in American Politics:

...Heard's conclusion is that money has more influence on party nominations than it does on the outcome of electoral contests...

...Governmental subsidies have been advocated (e.g., by Theodore Roosevelt, Harry Truman, Senator Richard Neuberger), were adopted in Puerto Rico, but have gotten nowhere in the States...

...This belief obtains credence from the instances of influence peddling which are exposed from time to time...

...Financial differences between the Democratic and Republican parties are more moderate than between major European parties...

...It is a way of furthering ideological beliefs and policies, of identifying with a candidate or a party, of conforming to group mores that giving, like voting, is a mark of civic virtue...

...A number of proposals have been directed to the positive implementation of these objectives...

...some give because they are dunned by business or professional clients or associates...

...however, politicians cannot afford to accept donations tied to vote-losing policies...

...Millions of people contribute, not just a few "fat cats...

...Giving money to political campaigns is a form of political action...

...Who contributes...

...and the regulatory system should be administered in a manner which citizens can respect...

...Also, differences between Republicans and Democrats tend to be misperceived because Republicans shift their money around between multiple committees more than their counterparts...

...Five major phases of campaign finance are explored: the effect of expenditures on the outcome of elections...

...On the contrary, they are as effective as in any other democracy—including Britain—but Americans are characteristically zealots in demanding the impossible...

...Reviewed by Herbert Garfinkel Associate Professor of Political Science, Michigan State University About $200 million was spent by American political parties and candidates on the recent election campaigns...

...Most difficult to investigate, for obvious reasons, is the extent and role of illicit sources of political support...

...The objectives of regulation should be clarified to further three requirements of campaign finance: Candidates should be ensured sufficient money to campaign effectively...

...contributing as a form of political behavior...

...Reform legislation has been passed before, and these suggestions may some day be enacted...

...A more positive approach is urged...

...Democrats do fare poorly at the apex of the business world where corporation officials are almost unanimously Republicans...

...and a concluding critique of efforts at legal regulation...

...Of crucial importance in some localities, it is of minor importance in most...

...Plainly, reliable knowledge about campaign finance is badly needed...

...devices for fund raising and their effects on party organization and nominations...

...Heard finds that corrupt practices regulations and investigations have greatly improved the situation since the 19th century...

...The latter donate not to obtain political privileges but to remain in the good graces of the solicitor in the private business world...

...The revelations of the Kefauver Crime Committee, which Heard utilizes, make disturbing but important reading...

...They are rarely for sale to the highest monetary bidder if only because "politicians prize votes more than dollars...

...Heard's conclusion is that, in politics, "he who pays the piper does not always call the tune...

...However, like the slogan, "As Maine goes, so goes the nation," this generalization collapsed in the five Roosevelt-Truman elections, each of which the Democrats won despite greater expenditures by their rivals...

...These range from seekers after Government defense contracts (generally awarded without competitive bidding) to underworld protection payments ("ice...

...But even if we are prepared to accept the expenditure of such sums as inevitable costs of modern campaigning, many remain uneasy and suspicious that money feeds the roots of political evil...

...Gifts to Democrats of $1,000 or more tend to come from people in merchandising, hard and soft drinks, construction materials, publishing, radio, advertising, professions and public office holders...

...some more generally use money as a ticket of admission to the political world (entree and good will...

...At the base, the money divides more evenly, and in some business areas Democrats obtain a larger proportion of the donations...

...There, since 1953, he has directed a team of scholars in the prodigious research which has culminated in this final report...

...Alexander Heard's excellent new book, The Costs of Democracy, is likely to stand for a considerable period as the authoritative guide to the role of money in American politics...

...Prior to the victories of Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman, historical experience strikingly supported the conclusion that elections are won by candidates who spend the most money...

...Heard contradicts the common view that regulations have not worked...

...Thus, the same money may be counted several times in a cumulative totaling...

...Altogether, there were about 3,000,000 persons who donated money to a party or candidate in the 1952 election...

...In each of four elections (1952, '54, '56, '58), the combined average of all national labor committee disbursements ran about $1,650,000...

...Some give hoping for specific governmental favors (patronage, franchises, etc...

...The motivations of donors are also complex, and there is no sharp and clear division between selfishness and altruism in political contributing anymore than elsewhere...

...Republicans are favored with gifts of $1,000 or more by bankers, brokers, manufacturers, oil, mining, utilities, transportation, real estate and insurance people...

...Heard is Professor of Political Science and Dean of the Graduate School at the University of North Carolina...

...their funds should be obtained in a manner which does not improperly obligate them...

...Why do donors give...

...Does money win elections...

...Labor money is a small proportion of total donations...

...More popular are income-tax deductions for political donations...

...But the general view is correct that Republicans raise and spend the most...

...On the average across the country Republican candidates in 1952 and 1956 had at least half again as much money spent on their behalf as did their Democratic opponents...

...Heard recommends these, plus regulation of broadcasting facilities to make them more equally available to candidates, and an effective system for public disclosure of contributions and expenditures...

...Not since 1932 had there been a major scholarly effort to ferret out the necessary facts from the maze of obscure contributors, multiple campaign committees, and sometimes reluctant politicians...

...However, as Heard concludes, "No fundamental change will be effected in the United States in the processes of campaign finance, by legislation or otherwise, without altered public attitudes and without public recognition of the functions of campaign expenditures, of the propriety of giving them, and of the penalties for not doing so in socially approved ways...

...When Americans ask this question, they want to know whether Democrats really do operate at a disadvantage as compared to Republicans...

...There is a dilemma created by the collision of traditionally negative objectives of present regulations and "the operating requirements of the political system...

...There are tens of thousands who donate several hundred dollars each...

...And a few take out "insurance" by donating to both parties and to competing candidates...

...Money clearly is important in influencing a number of "controllable campaign activities" like organizational work and propaganda efforts...

...The study is too extensive for an overall detailed summary, but a significant sampling may be had by examining Heard's answers to a few selected questions...

...the sources of funds...

...It is commonly believed that campaign contributors have some sort of quid pro quo in mind, and that political influence is available at a price...

...However, many influences on elections, such as the candidates' personal qualities, the context of issues and the predispositions of voters, are not crucially determined by moderate differences in campaign expenditures...

...Furthermore, the decentralization of American trade union organization results in considerable variation in the pattern of state and local election support...

...Contrary to the underdog image of the Democratic party, "big givers show up importantly in both parties and on behalf of many opposing candidates...

...In every Presidential election from 1904 through 1928 this correlation held, including the 1912 and 1916 Democratic victories, which were the only times that Democrats spent more than Republicans...

...The stereotype of the labor movement as the Democratic rich uncle is also exaggerated...

...The incentive to give as a means to influence is also manifold rather than singular...

...In 1952, for example, 150,000 people each gave at least $100...

...Dollars are badly needed for vote-attracting campaigns...

...20,000 each gave at least $500...

...Heard maintains that the extent of the disadvantage is frequently exaggerated in the folklore of American politics...

...Are legal controls effective...

...True, labor money flows to Democratic candidates far more than to Republicans, but the amount of giving is limited by resources as well as by legal restraints...

...Not everyone will share Heard's optimistic conclusion that "the remarkable thing is how little of this goes on...

...200 each gave at least $10,000...

...This may appear less staggering if we note that it takes the same amount just to advertise each year's crop of automobiles to the American public...

...American reformers must recognize that choosing public officials by competitive electoral processes entails the expenses of largescale public relations campaigns...

...The sometimes sordid record is not disputed, but Heard assails the naive cynicism which grossly over-simplifies the motivations of politicians...

...Statutes outlawing corruption should of course be strengthened, but unrealistic limits on the amount of spending and giving encourage a cynical dishonesty as multiple campaign committees and donors struggle to manipulate financial arrangements to fit impossible statutory requirements...