Rethinking Indigenous Politics in the Era of the "Indio Permitido"
Hale, Charles R.
Ethnicity can be a powerful tool in the creation of human and social capital, but, if politicized, ethnicity can destroy capital. ... Ethnic diversity is dysfunctional when it generates conflict....
...both are blunt conceptual tools, too focused on the practices themselves rather than on the consequences that followSEPTEMBER OCTOBER 2004 REPORT ON RACE, PART 1 These consequences will remain unclear, in turn, until the process of Maya rearticulation begins...
...9. This is the central concept in an essay that Millam~n and I co-authored, focusing comparatively on my analysis of Guatemala and his of Chile...
...The country was soon awash in international aid, with Maya civil society as the privileged recipient...
...Despite these rapidly changing demographic and economic conditions, indigenous leaders-increasingly urban and urbane-still draw heavily on the utopian discourse of indigenous autonomy, exercised in quintessentially rural, culturally bounded spaces...
...Abriendo Debate sobre un Tema TabO...
...These latter demands would be sure to evoke the wrath of the neoliberal state...
...Otherwise, it will be safe to assume that those who occupy this space have acquiesced, if only by default, to the regressive neoliberal project that the indio permitido is meant to serve...
...5. For example, the Guatemalan state, loath to give up the practice of separate and unequal, never fully embraced the mestizaje idea, except briefly during the 1944-54 period of social democratic reform...
...A second principle, also limiting the scope for possible change, has to do with the accumulation of politicalSEPTEMBER OCTOBER 2004 REPORT ON RACE, PART 1 power...
...Durham: Duke University Press...
...Crucially, this negotiation is no longer about the all-or-nothing ideal of mono-cultural citizenship, which any expression of collective rights would contradict...
...10 It would be wrong, however, to let this stark dichotomy between "cultural" and "political-economic" rights stand...
...LIKE GUATEMALA, NEARLY EVERY OTHER COUNTRY in Latin America has recently been transformed by the rise of collective indigenous voices in national politics and by shifts in state ideology toward "multiculturalism...
...These latter traits trouble elites who have pledged allegiance to cultural equality, seeding fears about what empowerment of these Other Indians would portend...
...In Guatemala, government endorsement of the Academy of Maya Languages signaled the beginning of the multicultural era...
...Quetzaltenango, With the indio permitido comes, Guatemala...
...It appears that Berger may have not have actively supported the expulsions, which have been carried forward by powerful business interests...
...Her book is still forthcoming...
...The preposterous idea that an Indian would become Minister of Finance is another matter altogether...
...Tensions will intensify in the area from Mexico through the Amazon region...
...139-162 (Chimaltenango: Ediciones COCADI, 1989...
...Such movements will increase, facilitated by transnational networks of indigenous rights activists and supported by well-funded international human rights and environmental groups...
...8 Although both explanatory tacks are valid, they miss the way neoliberalism also entails a cultural project, which contributes both to the rising prominence of indigenous voices and to the frustrating limits on their transformative aspirations...
...The same goes for efforts to connect diverse experiences of neoliberal racial formation, especially among indigenous and Afro-descendant peoples...
...Moreover, even if the dichotomy had residual validity on its own terms, it would not withstand close scrutiny The most important current indigenous demand-rights to territory and resources-cannot be construed as a "cultural" right...
...Land rights, again, are illustrative...
...These prerogatives are not about the state as the primary locus of social and economic policies, which now generally derive from the global arena...
...14 As globalized economic change continues, strategies of rearticulation can only become more difficult to achieve...
...Political initiatives that link indigenous peoples who occupy varying spaces in relation to the centers of political-economic power are especially promising...
...Governance now takes place instead through the distinction-to echo a World Bank dictum-between good ethnicity, which builds social capital, and "dysfunctional" ethnicity, which incites conflict...
...The point is not to lionize radicals or to place them beyond critique, but to challenge the dichotomy altogether, and thereby redefine the terms of indigenous struggle...
...The Central American countries offer an especially dramatic case in point...
...Newly inaugurated Guatemalan President Oscar Berger held a ceremony upon naming Rigoberta Menchi "Goodwill Ambassador," and turning over the Casa Crema (a building formerly assigned to the Ministry of Defense) to the Academy of Maya Languages...
...1 3 Even those who occupy the category of the indio permitido are contaminated by proximity to the radicals, and must constantly prove they belong in the sanctioned space...
...Cultural rights, up to and including many forms of local autonomy, do not threaten to contravene this principle, especially as neoliberal elites gain the wisdom to respond to their indigenous critics not by suppressing dissent, but by offering them a job...
...At issue, then, is not the struggle between individual and collective rights, nor the dichotomy between the cultural and the material, but rather the built-in limits to these spaces of indigenous empowerment...
...Neoliberal multiculturalism is more inclined to draw conflicting parties into dialogue and negotiation than to preemptively slam the door...
...Web sites of the World Bank and Inter-American Development Bank are awash with glowing articles about indigenous and Afro-descendent empowerment...
...With few exceptions, the locus of economic dynamism has shifted from agriculture to activities such as maquila production, remittance-driven financial services, tourism and commerce...
...CIA concerns about indigenous movements in Latin America as a future security threat are laid out in the CIA publication, found at this web address: <http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/globaltrends2015/index.html...
...Radical refusal of any engagement with the neoliberal state gains transformative traction to the extent that it simultaneously articulates, symbolically and in daily political practice, with those who struggle from other sociopolitical locations...
...There is a direct analogy here, with a prominent line of critique of affirmative action in the Unted States...
...The return to democracy--even the "guardian" or "low intensity" variants predominant in the region-provides these organizations space for maneuver...
...benefits to a few indigenous actors are predicated on the exclusion of the rest...
...At times, the contrast between cultural and politicaleconomic opportunity turns blatant and brutal...
...The crude Marxist distinction between superstructure and base does injustice to the holistic political visions of indigenous movements...
...1 2 Rather, the dichotomy is cultural-political: moderate versus radical, proper versus unruly Indians on the "radical" side of this divide are said to act in self-marginalizing ways...
...If the current massive flow of international aid, loans and development funding were cut off, these tiny dependent states would collapse...
...DEMETRIO COJTI Cuxil gained a well-earned reputation as "Dean" of Maya studies in Guatemala...
...One potentially deceptive image that flows from this analysis depicts a small indigenous elite benefiting as representatives of a majority from whom they are structurally alienated...
...The more "indio" you looked, the more this proximity explained your failings...
...6. A good analysis of Mexico's Museum of Anthropology in this vein can be found in Nestor Garcia Canclini, Culturas Hibridas: Estrategias para entrar y salir de la modernidad(Mexico: Grijalbo, 1989...
...Governance, Cultural Rights and the Politics of Identity in Guatemala," Joumal of Latin American Studies 34: 485-524, 2002...
...Still, it would be a mistake to equate the increasing indigenous presence in the corridors of power with indigenous empowerment...
...Blacks are more apt to be skeptical of the "good ethnics" trope, cutting through to its underlying racist premises...
...org/poverty/scapital/sources/ethnic2.htm#neg> 2. A brief selection of Cojtf's key publications include his "Problemas de la "Identidad Nacional' Guatemalteca," in Culture Maya y Polfticas de Desarrollo, COCADI, ed...
...Darker-skinned mestizos were lower on the hierarchy, a disadvantage invariably attributed to A mother and her toddler in Santa Eulalia, Guatemala...
...6 Elsewhere, this distance was spatial, as with the people of the Amazonian jungle lowlands, portrayed as inhabiting a world apart...
...The core of neoliberalism's cultural project is not radical individualism, but the creation of subjects who govern themselves in accordance with the logic of globalized capitalism...
...rather, he lacked the political resources and will to stop them...
...Instead, it is about the more reasonable proposition of nudging "radical" demands back inside the line dividing the authorized from the prohibited...
...This discourse can reinforce the ideology of the indio permitido, creating authorized spokespeople, increasingly out of touch with those whose interests they evoke...
...As long as neoliberal principles are critically scrutinized as opportunities to be exploited, the spaces they open could be productively occupied, fighting the good fight to circumvent their preinscribed limits...
...author of Resistance and Contradiction: Miskitu Indians and the Nicaraguan State, 1894-1987 (1994), and Mts que un indio: Racial Ambivalence and the Paradox of Neoliberal Multiculturalism in Guatemala (forthcoming...
...3 In 1998, I talked with Cojtl about the contradictory mix of opportunity and refusal in the policies of the Arzi administration (19962000) toward Maya, which he summarized succinctly: "Before, they just told us 'no.' Now, their response is 'si, pero' ['yes, but...
...While indigenous movements have made great strides over the past two decades, it is now time to pause and take stock of the limits and the political menace inherent in these very achievements...
...Although seeking assimilation, state ideologies of mestizaje also drew strength from the continued existence of the Indian Other...
...A crucial facet of resistance, then, is rearticulation, which creates bridges between authorized and condemned ways of being Indian...
...C. Arenas, C. R. Hale, and G. Palma, eds...
...One exception is Peter Wade, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America(London: Pluto, 1997...
...9 The phrase "indio permitido" names a sociopolitical category, not the characteristics of anyone in particular...
...Racial Ambivalence and the Paradox of Neoliberal Multiculturalism in Guatemala...
...The first highlights the creative and audacious political agency of indigenous peoples...
...While this mestizo project remains strong, its power as an ideology of governance is slipping...
...There is no point in trying to neatly classify this experience as either cooptation or everyday resistance...
...Ri Maya' Moloj pa Iximulew El Movimiento Maya (Guatemala City: Editorial Cholsamaj, 1997...
...Downsizing the state devolves limited agency to civil society, the font of indigenous organization...
...certain rights are to be enjoyed on the implicit condition that others will not be raised...
...With ironic humor and characteristic cogency, he offered his own explanation for having taken the job: to carry out a critical ethnography of the "ladino" state...
...To survive a decade of state-orchestrated hostility while staying the course of defiant political innovation is an impressive feat...
...Cultural resistance forges political unity and builds the trenches from which effective political challenge can later occur...
...I have engaged in precisely such an effort, with results that were mixed but positive enough Campesinos to keep on trying.11 Although some- await news from times viable and necessary, this strateauthorities gy is risky, especially when the full after taking ideological repercussions of neoliber- over a swath of al multiculturalism are taken into farmland in the province of account...
...Sometimes temporal distance separated this Other from the ideal mestizo citizen, as with the celebrated Aztec past in Mexico...
...Neoliberal multiculturalism permits indigenous organization, as long as it does not amass enough power to call basic state prerogatives into question...
...Yet the decline of the mestizo ideology of governance results from other forces as well...
...Nor do they revolve around the state's role as legitimate representative of the people, a dubious proposition for many Rather, at issue is the inviolability of the state as the last stop guarantor of political order...
...To portray the divide strictly in class terms misses the point, and could reinforce the assertion that "real" Indians are poor, rural and backward, while middle class Indians are "inauthentic...
...Gaining experience for a time when Mayas would control the state...
...Throughout Latin America, first round concessions of newly christened "multicultural" states cluster in the area of cultural rights, the further removed from the core concerns of neoliberal capitalism the better...
...Three years into the Portillo administration (2000-2004), I lunched with some ladino schoolteachers-participants in the teachers' strike of 2003 against neoliberal downsizing...
...We need a way, Rivera noted, to talk about how governments are using cultural rights to divide and domesticate indigenous movements...
...Yet instead of the belligerent "no" that one might expect, neoliberal institu18 tions have responded to the indigenous clamor for land with a resounding "si, pero...
...Given the genocidal brutality of Guatemala's ruling elite, amply demonstrated in recent history, this process is sure to turn ugly...
...Or, in colloquial terms: "te sali6 el indio" (you let the Indian in you come out...
...4. Ample documentation of this transformation can be found in Donna Lee Van Cott, The Friendly Liquidation of the Past: the Politics of Diversity in Latin America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000...
...To be effective, rearticulation will also need to draw on reconfigured political imaginaries, and on utopian discourses of a different hue...
...and Elizabeth A. Povinelli, The Cunning of Recognition:lndigenous Alterities and the Making of Australian Multiculturalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002...
...20 Rearticulation may also require shifting strategy from a focus on keeping the state out, to exerting control over the terms under which the state, and the neoliberal establishment more generally, stay in...
...This image deeply influenced mestizo political imaginaries...
...4 The latter, combined with aggressive neoliberal policies, forms part of an emergent mode of governance in the region...
...This example helps explain why the pattern is so widespread: indigenous rights are, in bureaucratic jargon, a "donor driven" priority...
...PERHAPS, THEN, DR...
...The short and unfortunate experience of the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) with "co-government" in Ecuador demonstrated how unprepared it was to take advantage of the fantastic success of ousting one government and being elected to help run its successor...
...2 A prolific scholar and public intellectual, Cojti deeply influenced the debate on Maya cultural and political rights...
...To occupy the space of the indio permitido may well be the most reasonable means at hand...
...This dramatic political achievement revealed the profound vulnerability of the indio permitido and the explosive potential of rearticulation as resistance...
...This article reports that CNOC, a coordinator of agrarian organizations, had occupied a total of 53 fincas in nine departments...
...A good example is the recent article "Diversity's False Solace" by Walter Benn Michaels in the New York times Magazine, 4/11/04...
...The indio permitido has passed the test of modernity, substituted "protest" with "proposal," and learned to be both authentic and fully conversant with the dominant milieu...
...Even aggressive economic reforms, which favor the interests of capital and sanctify the market, are compatible with some facets of indigenous cultural rights...
...Unitary citizenship precludes culturally specific collective rights...
...Although these two principles have a repressive side, it is striking how infrequently it appears...
...16 D URING THE 1990S, DR...
...As the experiment enters its second decade, however, the prospects for rearticulation grow increasingly remote...
...In this setting, also, to reduce the matter to class divisions is a simplification that mischaracterizes the dichotomy...
...5 Latin American states developed a mode of governance based on a unitary package of citizenship rights and a tendentious premise that people could enjoy these rights only by conforming to a homogeneous mestizo cultural ideal...
...There were variations, but the overall pattern remains clear...
...As the potential for forging such articulation diminishes, this space of refusal starts to look like the indio permitido's Other-unruly and conflict prone, but otherwise readily isolated and dismissed...
...Governance proactively creates and rewards the indio permitido, while condemning its Other to the racialized spaces of poverty and social exclusion...
...We borrow the phrase from Bolivian sociologist Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, who uttered it spontaneously, in exasperation, during a workshop on cultural rights and democratization in Latin America...
...Actual indigenous activist-intellectuals who occupy the space of the indio permitido rarely submit fully to these constraints...
...its progressive glimmer, in turn, gave the political project-to assimilate Indians and marginalize those who refused-its hegemonic appeal...
...inevitably, the construction of its undeserving, dysfunctional, Othertwo very different ways to be Indian...
...Explanations for the shift toward a "multicultural" public sphere in Latin America take two principal tacks...
...This first principle has an increasingly globalized character, driven less by the interests of national economic elites than by the constraints and opportunities of a global economic system...
...For good reason, it has been the first object of indigenous resistance across the region...
...7 The pluralism implicit in this principle-subjects can be individuals, communities or ethnic groups--cuts against the grain of mestizo nationalism, and defuses the once-powerful distinction between the forward-looking mestizo and the backward Indian...
...Soon thereafter, the Minister of Culture and Sports has become known as the "Indian" cabinet post, filled by a Maya in the last two administrations...
...The essence of this cultural project, the desired outcome of the government's "si pero," is captured in the figure of what Rosamel Millanmn and I have called the "indio permitido" ("authorized Indian...
...Reframing Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999...
...The epigraph text is from the World Bank website on "Social Capital and Ethnicity": <http://www.worldbank...
...Politicas para la reinvindicaclon de los Mayas de Hoy(Guatemala: CHOLSAMAJ, 1994...
...Indigenous demands for territorial sovereignty could present a radical challenge to neoliberal regimes, if they were extensive enough to support an alternative system of productive relations or sufficiently potent politically to undermine state authority Yet such a challenge blurs fairly easily into less expansive positions with which the state can readily negotiate...
...Far from opening spaces for generalized empowerment of indigenous peoples, these reforms tend to empower some while marginalizing the majority Far from eliminating racial inequity, as the rhetoric of multiculturalism seems to promise, these reforms reconstitute racial hierarchies in more entrenched forms...
...This ideal appropriated important aspects of Indian culture-and of black culture in Brazil and the Caribbean-to give it "authenticity" and roots, but European stock provided the guarantee that it would be modern and forward-looking...
...14...
...When Cojti later accepted the post of Vice Minister of Education in the newly elected Portillo government, speculation reigned...
...Those who occupy the category of the indio permitido must prove they have risen above the racialized traits of their brethren by endorsing and reinforcing the divide...
...This ideology was "progressive" in that it contested the 19th century thesis of racial degeneration and extended the promise of equality toSEPTEMBER OCTOBER 2004 REPORT ON RACE, PART 1 all...
...Peru and Paraguay constitute exceptions of a different sort, and each country had its particularities...
...The Bolivian indigenous uprising of October 2003 has given rise to a similar predicament...
...The menace resides in the accompanying, unspoken parameters: reforms have pre-deter17 z 0 0NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS REPORT ON RACE, PART 1 mined limits...
...and "Democracy, Indigenous Movements, and the PostLiberal Challenge in Latin America," in World Politics 52 (October): 76104,1999...
...Its Other is unruly, vindictive and conflict prone...
...Our use of the word "indio" is meant to suggest that the aggregate effect of these measures-quite apart from the sensibilities of individual reformers--has been to perpetuate the subordination the term traditionally connotes...
...By placing both experiences under the same analytic lens, we see more clearly how neoliberal multiculturalism constructs bounded, discontinuous cultural groups, each with distinct rights, that are discouraged from mutual interaction...
...and in the post-9/11 climate, criticism of 19NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS REPORT ON RACE, PART 1 these negative traits gives way to the ultimate term of opprobrium, the indigenous "terrorist...
...THE CRITIQUE THAT ACCOMPANIES THIS ACCOUNT DOES NOT focus primarily on the limited character of the spaces opened by neoliberal multiculturalism, but rather on the prospect that these limits would define what is politically possible...
...Many dominant culture ladinos associated him with the most assertive of Maya demands that directly challenge their long-standing racial privilege...
...1- 56 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001...
...For an example of news reports on the violent expulsions, see "Plataforma Agraria: Exigen a Oscar Berger fin de desalojos," Prensa Libre, 2/20/2004...
...and "Heterofobia y Racismo Guatemalteco," in iRacismo en Guatemala...
...The second, exemplified by the work of political scientist Deborah Yashar, emphasizes structural or institutional dimensions...
...COJTI'S STRATEGY REQUIRES A SECOND look and a more subtle reading...
...Hale, Galio C. Gurdian, and Edmund T. Gordon: "Rights, Resources and the Social Memory of Struggle: Reflections on a Study of Indigenous and Black Community Land Rights on Nicaragua's Atlantic Coast," Human Organization 62(4), 2003...
...Most often, these two dimensions merged, creating a powerful composite image of the racialized Other against which the mestizo ideal was defined...
...proximity to "lo indio" ("Indianness...
...Civil society organizations have gained a seat at the table, and if well-connected and well-behaved, they are invited to an endless flow of workshops, spaces of political participation, and training sessions on conflict resolution...
...And the racism embedded in mestizo societies delivers a double blow, denigrating the unassimilated while inciting the assimilated to wage an endless struggle against the "Indian within...
...Had he "sold out...
...Guatemala: Ediciones Don Quijote, 1999...
...RErHmNKING INDIGENOUS Pouncs 1. The basic analysis put forth in this essay was developed collaboratively with my friend and colleague Rosamel Millam6n...
...They scoffed when I remarked that, a few years earlier, they had described Cojti as a radical: "He's part of the government now, even worse than the others...
...To express their anxieties about these challenges, they often distinguished between principles they endorsed, like the idea of cultural equality, and "extreme" Maya demands that they associated with violence and conflict...
...It would be fatalistic to abandon hopes for rearticulation in anticipation of this ugliness, but irresponsible to advocate Maya ascendancy without imagining some means to assuage the fears and lessen the polarization...
...3. This assessment tended to be based less on a systematic content analysis of Cojtf's position, than on the mere fact that a highly educated Maya dared to name the racial ills of Guatemalan society in a public, cogent and forthright manner...
...Was he out to test the limits of "si, pero...
...to carry programs on Maya culture, interculturalidad, and sprituality...
...A REASONABLE STARTING POINT FOR EXPLORING THIS NEW form of governance is the distinction between cultural rights and political-economic empowerment...
...See also her "Contesting Citizenship: Indigenous Movements and Democracy in Latin America," in Comparative Politics: 23-42, 1998...
...For a preliminary report and reflection on one such effort, see C.R...
...Rearticulation, in contrast, would build bridges among indigenous peoples in diverse structural locations: from rural dwellers, to workers in the new economies, to those who struggle from within the neoliberal establishment...
...As a first principle, indigenous rights cannot violate the integrity of the productive regime, especially those sectors most closely linked to the globalized economy...
...More generally, this principle dictates a sharp distinction between policies focused on "poverty reduction," which are ubiquitous and heavily supported, and those intended to reduce socioeconomic inequality, conspicuous for their absence...
...See our forthcoming "Cultural agency and political struggle in the era of the 'indio permitido'," in Cultural Agency in the Americas, D. Sommer, ed...
...their resentment feeds "reverse racism...
...Multicultural reforms present novel spaces for conquering rights, and demand new skills that often give indigenous struggles a sophisticated allure...
...During the same visit to Guatemala in which I spoke with my teacher friends about their strike, I asked Cojti about the inner workings of the Ministry of Education...
...Atop leader of CONIC, another indigenous agrarian organization, recently told me that the number of occupied fincas was much higher than 100...
...Indigenous people are better positioned to work the newly opened spaces of cultural rights, putting assumptions about Indians as inherently pre-modern to good use...
...Ahead lies the task of imagining the kind of reconstituted state and alternative productive regime that would stay true to that momentarily unified, but now highly fragmentary, indigenous majority The decade-old Zapatista uprising in Chiapas raises the same basic question, from the opposite point of departure...
...Policies of assimilation threaten ethnocide...
...Indeed, this shift already has begun...
...Jean Comaroff and John L. Comaroff, "Millennial Capitalism: First Thoughts on a Second Coming," in Millennial Capitalism and the Culture of Neoliberalism, J. Comaroff and J L. Comaroff, eds., pp...
...All the contrary if, for example, indigenous movements were to challenge the free trade zones that shelter maquila-type production, declare a moratorium on international tourism or create their own banks to serve as the "first stop" for remittances from indigenous peoples working abroad...
...and an ambivalent majority that implemented the new "multicultural" mandate without conviction, as the path of least resistance...
...Simultaneously, Berger stood by as the Armed Forces began the violent eviction of landless indigenous campesinos that had occupied over 100 farms in the prior three years...
...Once the cultural project of neoliberalism is specified, these limits become more evident...
...Neoliberal democratization contradicts key precepts of the mestizo ideal...
...World Bank Web site on "Social Capital and Ethnicity" 1 Charles R. Hale is associate professor of anthropology at the University of Texas, Austin...
...See, for example, "Campesinos invaden 665 caballerlas," Siglo XX/, 7/24/02...
...Sustained analysis in this dual analytical lens is exceedingly and surprisingly rare...
...I develop a version of this argument more fully in my "Does Multiculturalism Menace...
...If so, it will be especially crucial to name that space, to highlight the menace it entails, and to subject its occupants to stringent demands for accountability to an indigenous constituency with an alternative political vision...
...If an indigenous community gains land rights and pulls these lands out of production, this poses no such threat, especially given the likelihood of the community's return to the fold through a newly negotiated relationship with the market...
...In Guatemala, the great wave of such government initiatives came just after the signing of the Peace Accords in December 1996...
...I address ladino responses to Maya ascendancy at length in my book, to be published with the School of American Research Press, titled: Mds que un indio...
...He announced that the Casa Crema would also house a new television show...
...An example of the warning, cited from this report, is as follows: "Indigenous protest movements...
...7. For an analysis of "neoliberal" or "late" liberalism, see: Nikolas Rose, Powers of Freedom...
...In its mid- to late-20th century heyday, the state ideology of mestizaje had the same dual quality of today's multiculturalism: in some respects egalitarian and in others regressive...
...Many continue northward to the United States...
...When asked to elaborate, they would often turn personal:"Ah, Demetrio Cojti, for example-he is 100% radical...
...Growing numbers of indigenous peoples are leaving rural communities for urban areas, where education, jobs and some hope of upward mobility can be found...
...8. This summary is based on Yashar's presentation at the University of Texas, in May 2004...
...The Ministry of Education also showcases the multicultural ethic with its programs in bilingual education and interculturalidad (intercultural dialogue...
...Throughout Central America, for example, the World Bank is funding land demarcation projects, intended to assure black and indigenous communities rights to lands of traditional occupation...
...Rural Indian households are most likely to remain stuck in a cycle of critical poverty...
...She explains the upsurge of indigenous politics as an unintended consequence of two broader developments: the wave of democratization, which opened new spaces of participation, and neoliberal reform, which eliminated corporatist constraints on indigenous autonomy and accentuated economic woes...
...Without the state, however, neoliberal economic development would lack the coercive means and minimal legitimacy to proceed...
...He divided the overwhelmingly ladino bureaucracy into three groups: hard-core racists and race progressives, both minorities...
Vol. 38 • September 2004 • No. 2
