The Permanent Crisis of the Public University
Gentili, Pablo
A few brief moments of institutional splendor aside, the history of the Latin American university is a history of crisis. Indeed, because the words "crisis" and "university" go hand in hand in...
...2.2 Private Schools Total Privatization Institutional arrangements that presuppose the total (or almost total) delegation of the financing and the provision of educational services to individuals, groups or private entities...
...The state, SagendaS assaulted for its alleged lack of ific and efficiency, has retreated in some cases, and in those instances in l research...
...Scientific policy, moreover, can be promoted by a system of rewards that distributes public funds by means of efficiency and productivity criteria...
...Few Latin American universities have the financial and human resources required to sustain a systematic program of scientific research...
...These get...
...he almost fundamentalist emphasis on the virtues of the market as the most efficient avenue for capturing financial resources for teaching, research and extension activities not only challenges the role of the state, but also enthrones mercantile and productivity-oriented criteria in the allocation and distribution of public funds...
...Judith Sutz, Universidad, producci6n, gobierno: Encuentros y desencuentros (Montevideo: International Center for Social Studies (CIESU), 1996), p. 17...
...Pablo Gentili, ed., Pedagogia da Exclusio...
...This is yet another factor in the growing loss of control on the part of the academic community over the formulation of its research agenda...
...The problem is not so much that academics are losing the power to define their own research agendas...
...Vol XXXIII, No 4 JAN/FEB 2000 15REPORT ON THE CRISIS OF HIGHER EDUCATION Student strikers at UNAM, in Mexico City...
...85-109...
...9 In this context, some observors have power...
...2 Linked to this is the fact that universities that do have active research agendas often limit them to a narrow set of practical scientific fields such as medicine, agronomy and engineering...
...9. Banco Mundial, Prioridades y estrategias para la educaci6n: Examen del Banco Mundial (Washington: World Bank, 1996...
...8 iy in Latin This, of course, has had a powerfully negative impact on the ability as lost its of the public universities to funcdefine tion as research institutions...
...he present crisis of Latin American education cannot be reduced simply to economic causes...
...Sutz, Universidad, producci6n, gobierno, p. 17...
...Whoever wishes to conduct research must follow these criteria...
...Funding actually increased under the milially, it was tary regime for agencies like ally, it wa CONACYT, CNPq and CAPES to ' academics vere the "d-bearers stitutional ie university...
...In some cases, there has been private investment in public universities, and faculty are being encouraged to obtain outside funding...
...2. Simon Schwartzman, Ambrica Latina: Universidades en transici6n (Washington: Organization of American States, 1996...
...In fact, the private universities are not, on the whole, strong in the area of research and scientific production...
...During the periods of military rule in Argentina and Chile, for example, CONICET, CONIis the reverse in Brazil...
...1 8 Such a measure of academic legitimacy, in turn, further legitimizes market criteria in the allocation of resources-criteria that, when it comes to defining budget lines, seem to be far more appealing than those offered by the academic community...
...With the exception of Chile, and to some extent Mexico and Brazil, these think tanks exist outside the realm of the university system and often develop in open opposition to both private and public universities...
...5 Finally, there are still relatively few postgraduate programs in Latin American universities, an essential condition for the consolidation of a lasting research policy in the medium and long term...
...The best-known "Historic agencies of this type include: The National Council of Scientific and the 'pure Technical Research (CONICET) in Argentina (created in 1958...
...4. Jos4 Joaquin Brunner, Educaci6n Superior en Ambrica Latina: una agenda de problemas, politicas y debates en el umbraldel a/o 2000 (Buenos Aires: Center for the Study of State and Society (CEDES), 1994...
...The problem is not the fact that the academic community has lost its power...
...This latter sitions to democracy, but funding cuts during the sectype of contractual financing consists of a wide variety of ond half of the 1990s have placed these agencies once subsidies for the maintenance of again in jeopardy.12 The situation research programs, institutional support, hiring specialized personnel and scholarship funds...
...He has published numerous books and articles, including, A Falsificagqo do Consenso...
...Privatization in education can mean the reduction of public investment or the restructuring of state spending following market-oriented principles of efficiency and profitability...
...Data from Brazil from the Ministry of Education and the National Institute of Education Research, 1998...
...In Argentina, for example, university professor salaries were 60% lower in 1993 than in 1980.7 In fact, since a big slice of all university budgets in Latin America goes to pay faculty salaries, cutting those salaries-sometimes by simply allowing real earnings to deteriorate during periods of high inflation, as occurred in Brazil in 1989has been a relatively easy way to reduce government spending...
...Budget cuts and the failure to increase public funding for higher education clearly jeopardize the development of a long-term agenda of 'ry h to r'1 5. le -a o -tl at scientific research...
...Governments, private investors, international organizations and the universities themselves often proclaim that the future of the Latin American university is linked to the establishment of active research agendas that advance scientific knowledge...
...In certain cases, it can mean the opposite...
...Daniel Levy, ed., La educaci6n superior superior dentro de las transformaciones polifticas y econ6micas de los afios noventa...
...Latin America currently has one of the lowest rates of perstudent public spending in the world...
...facing t Politicians also frequently express a mistrust of the academy...
...There are also special funds administered by official conditions improved during the early years of the tranagencies for the promotion of scientific research...
...In such a scheme, postgraduate programs can be developed by delegating the financing of such programs to the users through fees or the sale of services that allow the self-financing of the courses offered...
...Privatization not only implies a diminishing role of the state, but a complete redefinition of its functions...
...Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Suriname Trinidad & Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela (MF= male and female) MF M F 3.8 1.8 2.6 16.9 16.7 NA 4.8 8.7 5.2 4.3 17.9 9.9 28.5 44.4 1.9 55.0 27.3 15.0 10.4 34.3 9.2 7.9 11.3 7.0 21.2 NA 2.7 8.9 3.8 1.5 2.0 19.5 16.7 NA 4.6 8.8 5.3 3.8 18.0 8.0 26.6 37.5 1.3 52.0 27.4 19.2 8.2 35.4 8.6 6.5 5.5 4.9 1.2 NA 3.1 8.2 3.8 2.0 3.2 24.0 16.8 NA 5.0 8.6 5.0 4.7 17.8 11.8 30.3 51.4 1.5 57.8 27.3 10.9 12.6 33.4 9.8 9.4 17.0 9.0 3.0 NA 2.3 9.7 90 123 100 202 55 40 159 NA 49 91 119 52 70 48 31 50 3 55 64 97 32 62 43 85 116 121 212 296 206 tLountry 1996 Argentina Aruba Barbados Belize Bolivia Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Rep...
...Evaluations, in this case, not only "evaluate...
...This growth of the student body has led to the adoption of policies which have prioritized teaching over research in order to meet demand...
...1.2, the delegation of financing...
...the who v Foundation for Higher Education standar Training (CAPES) and the National Council of Science and Technology of the in (CNPq) in Brazil (1954...
...Pablo Gentili, "iLa maldici6n divina...
...In Country Ault Illiteracy Kate circulation Estimates for 1995 of Daily (% ofTotal Population) Newspapers level p/1000 Antigua & Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Rep...
...As mentioned earlier, the privatization of education generally falls under the modalities exemplified by quadrants 2.2 and 1.2, since these are the products of the state's total or partial abandonment of its responsibility as the provider of education...
...The crucial problem here is who benefits...
...From the perspective of educational pol- those wh icy, there will always be disagree- namement, conflict and negotiation over the themes and problems that won thi define or should define those scientific research agendas...
...This is particularly worrisome in light of the historic attitudes of Latin American businessmen towards education, particularly higher education...
...which it retains a presence, it has s agenda shifted emphasis, promoting mar- ket-based criteria for the distribun ethical tion of resources...
...The forces behind the market are the most challenge powerful sectors of society, who equires the have contributed precious little to scientific and technological devebreak from lopment in Latin American nations...
...Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Guyana Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru St...
...Their principal objective is to capture the growing student demand for courses and diplomas--constituting virtual academic supermarkets of dubious pedagogical quality and with no commitment to scientific production...
...107 (1990), pp...
...5. Daniel Levy, ed., La educaci6n superior dentro de las transformaciones politicas y econ6micas de los ahos noventa: informe del Grupo de Trabajo sobre Educaci6n Superior de la Asociaci6n de Estudios Latinoamericanos (Buenos Aires: CEDES, 1994...
...For the Chilean case, see Juan Gabriel Valdbs, Pinochet's Economists: The Chicago School in Chile (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995...
...See Juan Carlos Campbell, "La educaci6n superior en Chile: cambios y desaffos," Interdisciplinary Research Center for Higher Education (CIPEDES), Working Paper Series (June 1, 1998...
...Those who do not can hardly expect to survive in a field in which competitiveness requires subordination to the needs and demands of the market...
...Lucia Trinidad & Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Vol XXXIII, No 4 JA!'dFEB 2000 17 ruDIlC Expenditure on Education as % of GDP 3.5 4.9 7.2 5.0 5.6 7.0 3.1 4.4 5.3 NA 2.0 3.5 2.2 1.7 4.9 3.6 7.5 4.9 NA 4.6 3.9 2.9 3.8 9.8 4.4 5.4 3.3 5.2 Source: 1998 UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, http: iunescostat.unesco.org...
...6. Fernando Reimers, "Education Finance in Latin America: Perils and Opportunities," Jeffrey Puryear and Jos6 Joaquin Brunner, eds., Education, Equity and Economic Competitiveness in the Americas: An Inter-American Dialogue Project (vol...
...What it entails is the transfer of particular public educational responsibilities, which are now supplied by the private sector even as they are still financed by the state...
...This in turn has led to an exodus of some of the most promising and accomplished intellectuals from institutions of higher learning.1 Second, there has NACIA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 12REPORT ON THE CRISIS OF HIGHER EDUCATION been an emphasis in many of the more traditional universities on the training of employable professionals, which has often led to a separation of "practical" courses of study from institutionalized programs of university-based research...
...In this context, the extent to which a group of researchers is able to finance their own activities becomes a measure not only of how socially useful they are, but also of their academic legitimacy...
...2 ' the resear The problem is not only that the of scier Latin American private sector has invested little in scientific technologi research, but that what little it Making t has invested has not, in general terms, been directed to the univer- public is sities--public or private...
...3 Another factor undermining university-based research is the significant growth of the student population, which began in the 1950s and has greatly intensified since the 1970s...
...The Permanent Crisis of the Public University 1. Franz Hinkelammert, "La libertad acad6mica bajo control en America Latina," Nueva Sociedad, No...
...This, in privatized turn, has unleashed a series of agendas negative consequences...
...worth commenting on--trends, in fact, which throw some light on the current state of the Americas...
...University research at the service of such societal demands generally means research at the service of private enterprise...
...The problem is not simply the increase in the number of private institutions, nor can it be reduced to simple economic terms...
...Pablo Gentili, A falsificagio do consenso...
...By the early 1990s, the Brazilian government was spending one-sixth of what it spent on scientific development in the mid-1960s.' 3 n another significant development, over the past decade, privatization processes have fundamentally restructured the systems of Latin American higher education...
...In Argentina and Brazil, more than a third of the universities are (who provides) Public-sector provision Private-sector provision Collective Financing 1.1 Public Schools 2.1 Privatization of supply Delegation of the provision of public educational services to individual groups orprivate entities while maintaining public financing...
...8. Schwartzman, Ambrica Latina: Universidades en transici6n...
...privatized the priorities of scientific and technological research...
...24 (1994), pp...
...See Jorge Dominguez, ed., Technopols: Freeing Politics and Market in Latin America in 1990s (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997...
...Daniel Levy, La educaci6n superiory el Estado Latinoamericano: Desaflos privados al predominio pOblico (Mbxico City: FLACSO/CESU/Angel Porrua Grupo Editorial, 1995...
...The negative effects of privatization, however, do not end with budget cuts...
...But power what are such programs likely to look like in this neoliberal age...
...There is clearly a demand for The acade some institutions of higher learning to expand the development of America scientific research programs...
...2 0 This is in striking con- Current trast to the developed world, where private-sector support of policies ha research and development is quite high...
...The privatization of social policy by neoliberal regimes must be understood as a process of delegation...
...Figure 1 also points to the existence of other very important forms of delegation/privatization which contribute to the loss of university autonomy...
...These become a kind of unofficial curriculum which regulates and strongly influences the pedagogical decision making of educational institutions...
...Private institutions-motivated by profits, not researchare attracting a growing number of students throughout the region...
...suggested that universities restructure their fiscal operations in order to operate more "efficiently" on their reduced budget allocations.10 While such restructuring is certainly called for in many instances, budget cuts have prompted most universities to focus almost exclusively on obtaining alternative financing...
...A number of factors have contributed to this situation...
...Traditional public schools fall into quadrant 1.1 as institutions in which both financing and supply are from the public sector...
...In the arena of social policy, "privatization" does not necessarily mean the "acquisition" or "sale" of businesses...
...For Argentina, see Jorge Baln and Ana Garcia de Fanelli, Expansi6n de la oferta universitaria: Nuevas instituciones, nuevos programas (Buenos Aires: Center for the Study of the State and the Society (CEDES), 1994...
...While public universities have fared slightly better than primary and secondary schools, where public funding has nose-dived in the past decade and a half, the situation is still grave...
...support research projects and training programs as well as fellowships for graduate study abroad...
...Translated from the Spanish by Marcial Godoy...
...Politicas de ensino superior na America Latina: uma an6lise comparada," Revista Brasileira de Cidncias Sociais, No...
...NACIA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS Source: Pablo Gentili, A falsificagdo do consenso...
...Ongoing university reforms are a dramatic example of the fact that in education, privatization can move forward without the sale of any institution...
...and Pedagogia da Exclus~o: Critica ao Neoliberalismo em Educago (Vozes, 1995...
...This is a prerequisite to making scientific agendas representative of the interests of groups other than those that today, through the power of money or intellectual arrogance, continue to monopolize them...
...Making this agenda public is an ethical and political challenge, but it cannot be with the purpose of re-establishing a self-indulgent, distant and arrogant academic community...
...n neoliberal Latin America, "societal demands" are often presented as "demands of the market"-a euphemism used by those in power to refer to the interests of the business sector...
...Kitts & Nevis St...
...A significant part of the funding for university research in the region depends on these agencies, but the growing decline of public financing has brought many of these institutions to the verge of collapse, creating considerable structural difficulties for the promotion of scientific research...
...Those few private research-oriented universities have also suffered the crunch of public funding...
...Figure 1 lays out the four possible combinations of the "financing" and "supply" variables in terms of the public/private distinction...
...it is, rather, that market-driven entities with little historical concern for scientific progress are winning that power in the context of the hegemony of neoliberalism in Latin America today...
...These reservations notwithstanding, there are some general trends Pablo Gentili is a professor in the Political Philosophy of Education Concentration in the Education Faculty at the University of the State of Rio de Janeiro...
...The few private institutions that have developed strong research programs are religious universities and a handful of elite secular institutions, and they have done so primarily through public funding...
...Engaging the university in these problems is a challenge that must be taken up by academic researchers-as well as many others, of course...
...1 4 Private institutions are attracting a growing number of students and are beginning to dominate national university systems...
...1 " In the context of the region's ongoing financial crisis, there are two identifiable trends which further confirm the loss of university autonomy in the formulation of a scientific research agenda: the deterioration of those agencies whose mission is to fund and/or promote research, and the growing move towards the privatization of university services...
...it is the academics y the flag...
...Indeed, because the words "crisis" and "university" go hand in hand in Latin America, and because the deep problems in which the university system now finds itself are so complex and vary so much from institution to institution, it is difficult to talk about the "crisis" in the singular...
...7. Reimers, "Education Finance in Latin America...
...Vol XXXIII, No 4 JAN/FEB 2000 13REPORT ON THE CRISIS OF HIGHER EDUCATION In some Latin American countries, there is a specific allo- CYT and FONDECYT had to confront strong ideocation for research funds within the general education bud- logical controls and serious financing problems...
...they also establish criteria for planning and goals which must be implemented and met in order to avoid punitive measures in the future...
...As Judith Sutz has stated: The university has always been comprised of hidden disagreements, incomprehensions and reciprocal mistrust...
...Ensayos sobre la crisis de la escuela p blica (con Tomaz Tadeu da Silva y Michael Apple...
...Losada, 1997...
...In the regior the context of the current dominance of transnational business agenda and finance, the Latin American real prob scientific community is losing the power to define the research agen- it is the m das of its own universities...
...See Figure 1, p. 14.] The delegation of financial responsibilities from the government to individuals, families and private enterprise leads to an increase in the number of private institutions, a dynamic we have already mentioned...
...It has been widely noted that evaluative processes themselves generate funding priorities that-as they reward "the best" and punish "the worst"-themselves turn into powerful normative criteria...
...both relative and absolute terms, the role played by private enterprise in the development of scientific and technological development in the region has been relatively small...
...Private investment in the social sciences, in like manner, is directed primarily toward specialized think tanks that undertake policy-oriented research and train the technical and political professionals who fill the ranks of state institutions and privatesector agencies...
...The delegation of supply, however, does not necessarily mean a reduction of the state's financial responsibility...
...6 As the university population has grown since the early 1980s, the number of faculty hired has also increased in order to keep student-to-faculty ratios relatively constant...
...While overall investment in scientific research has always been sparse, it has historically been the state that has provided the vast majority of the resources for such endeavors...
...First and foremost is the fact that the region's frequent interruptions of democratic rule have draped a veil of obscurantism on the development of scientific knowledge...
...Pedro Krotsch, "El peso de Ia tradici6n y las recientes tendencias de privatizaci6n en la universidad argentina: hacia una relaci6n pdblico-privado," CIPEDES, Working Paper Series (June 1, 1998...
...That is the case even the walls though the business community is tower to purportedly a major "client" of the scientific knowledge pro- monument duced by public and private facing t research centers...
...They remain as central and f its ivory powerful players, demanding litIdress the tle if anything other than "useful," profitable knowledge from I problems the university...
...1) (Washington: Organization of American States, 1994...
...Afrtnio Mendes Catani, ed., Universidade na Ambrica Latina: tend~ncias e perspectivas (Sao Paulo: Cortez Editorial, 1996...
...Individual Financing 1.2 Privatization of funding Delegation ofpublic financing to the users ofthe system while maintaining public provision of services...
...Yet it would also be a mistake to overlook the regressive effects of the sharp cuts in public spending on education which have taken place throughout the region in recent years...
...This trend, rket--and which is supported by the World act in its Bank, suggests that in the medium act in its term, no substantial increase in pubhat has lic university funding is likely...
...3. Schwartzman, Ambrica Latina: Universidades en transici6n...
...Helena Sampaio and LUcia Klein...
...Cuts have not only compromised the ability of universities to define their scientific agendas, but have threatened the very existence of rigorous academic research committed to the production of scientific knowledge...
...To privatize, in this sense, means to delegate functions.7 While one of the most powerful means to accomplish this is through the sale of public enterprises to private capital, this is not really viable in the educational arena...
...In light of this-and the impossibility of exerting complete control over institutions of higher education-political and business sectors have created parallel institutions to carry out training and research activities that would otherwise be developed within universities...
...Simulacro e imposigAo na reforma educacional do neoliberalismo (Vozes, 1998...
...Through a variety of institutional mechanisms, public responsibilities are transferred to private entities...
...Cultura, Politica y Curriculo...
...A similar trend is evident in the evaluation of educational institutions...
...On the contrary, the majority of newly formed private universities in Latin America are based on quick profitability, not research...
...It was during the return to democratic rule in the 1980s that funding began to dwindle...
...Delegation can take two forms: the delegation of financing (who pays) and the delegation of supply (who provides...
...It is not these research-oriented private universities, however, that have proliferated over the past two decades...
...and the National Council of Science and Technology who carr (CONACYT) in Mexico (1968...
...the National Council of Science and Technical ethos of t1 Research CONICYT (1968) and the Today Scientific and Technological Fund for Development (FONDECYT) in 'applied' Chile (1981...
...The privatization of sparked the strike...
...Their research programs have suffered, as has their ability to train new researchers...
...The university as an institution, whether and politic public or private, seems to gener- -one that ate little interest among the national and transnational eco- academy t( nomic groups operating in Latin America...
...The remaining three quadrants encompass the diverse modalities and degrees of privatization (2.2, total privatization...
...today it is the "applied" academics who are carrying that flag...
...1 9 In a similar manner, the criteria established by the agencies that promote and finance university reNNCIA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 16REPORT ON THE CRISIS OF HIGHER EDUCATION search-often guided by market-based conceptions of questionable validity-themselves become the normative mechanisms that define the research agenda...
...Historically, it was the "pure" academics who were the standard-bearers of the institutional ethos...
...Even in Uruguay, where until very recently the tradition of public education was very strong, there has been a remarkable growth of private universities.16 The growth of the private sector per se does not itself explain the growing loss of research autonomy on the part of public university communities...
...In this case, the state does not decrease its financial contribution and may even expand it, benefiting those agencies or institutions which best respond to these modes of evaluation (modality 2.1 in Figure 1...
...14REPORT ON THE CRISIS OF HIGHER EDUCATION private.15 Only Cuba and Haiti lack a private university sector...
...The reduction and restructuring of the state, moreover, can be implemented at the same time...
...These sectors include the business community, political parties, labor unions, civic associations, human rights organizations, peasant groups and social movements...
...Simulacro e imposigio na reforma educacional do neoliberalismo (Vozes, 1998...
...Critica ao neoliberalismo em educa~go (Petr6polis: Vozes, 1995...
...The problem is that the market has won it...
...The academic community must engage itself in the monumental problems facing a region in which social inequality, the concentration of wealth and the disparities between rich and poor are among the worst in the world...
...4 Faculty are now hired primarily to teach, and few incentives are offered to promote research...
...It is the market-and those who act in its name-that has eoliberal won the power to define research agendas in the region...
...2 3 n ve "c iti ca hi a al rE o ta he he loss of autonomy on the part of the academic community is not necessarily bad news...
...It is precisely in the context of this redefinition that the autonomy of the university community on scientific matters is most seriously undermined...
...2.1, the delegation of supply...
...The result has been a reduction in the role of public agencies and an increasing institutional reliance on the private sector...
...The budgets for public education, however, have not increased proportionately, meaning that the salaries of academic personnel have fallen precipitously...
...This is how the market begins to play a normative role and displace the scientific criteria that are conventionally used by the academic community to define its research agenda...
...For the Argentine case, see Andrbs Thompson, "Think Tanks" en la Argentina (Buenos Aires: CEDES, 1994...
...These needs and demands, however, are much broader and more substantive than those formulated by businessmen and the institutions that represent their interests...
...131-137...
...Intellectual arrogance and entrenched corporatism have frequently distanced academics from social needs and societal demands...
...Other institutions have sought to impose tuition fees on the student population...
...Enrique Oteiza, ed., La politica de investigaci6n cientifica y tecnol6gica argentina: Historia yperspectivas (Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de Ambrica Latina, 1992...
...Las complejas relaciones entre los hombres de negocios y las political educativas," in Graciela Frigerio, Margarita Poggi and Mario Giannoni, eds., Politicas, instituciones y actores en educaci6n (Buenos Aires: CEM/Novedades Educativas, 1997...
...2 2 For example, institutions belonging to particular companies or corporations are frequently funded by private sources to carry out research and development...
...In the 1990s, these trends have s research continued as a result of the explicit policy of governments to cut back But the public spending on higher education m is that in order to prioritize the funding of primary education...
...Compiled by former NACLA staff assistant Ben Grames...
...Current neoliberal policies have region...
...the privatization process underway in the Latin American university system is far more complex, and its reach far more extreme...
...Alberto Carvalho da Silva, "O financiamento da pesquisa na universidade p0blica," Jacques Velloso, ed., Universidade ptblica: Politica, desempenho e perspectivas (Campinas: Papirus, 1991...
...With a few rare exceptions, however, university-based research is not a regular and systematic activity in Latin America...
...The point is not to deny or lament this fact...
...It is here that links and networks with other sectors of society must be established...
...Even in Brazil, where private enterprise has always played a dynamic role in technological investment, private resources for scientific development in the late 1980s was a paltry 0.09% of the gross national product (GNP...
...In Brazil, Chile and Colombia, over half of the student population is enrolled in private universities...
...Simulacro e impossicao na reforma educacional do neoliberalismo (Petr6polis: Vozes, 1998...
...Students at a private university in Chile...
Vol. 33 • January 2000 • No. 4
