Haiti's Popular Resistance

...The army responded with a "clean-up" of its own, massacring voters as they turned out to cast their ballots...

...L.R...

...VoL XXVII, No 4 JAN/FEB 1994 33REPORT ON HAITI block any deeper change...

...Also, "CIA Formed Haitian Unit Later Tied to Narcotics Trade," New York Times, November 14, 1993...

...Founded in March, 1987 as a popular alternative to KONAKOM, the APN is represented throughout the country in the form of local popular assemblies...

...Popularly denigrated as being "two-headed," the government was quickly discredited for its complete inability to respond to the demands of the masses...

...Style," p. 35] and the absence of a political party or a united front capable of concretizing popular demands, and the challenges facing the movement are revealed...

...Springing from the current of liberation theology, the Ti Legliz movement Father Willy Romelus, a leader of the Ti took off in the Leglizmovement, speaks at the funeral mid-1970s, pro- of a victim of military violence...

...It saw the focus on the referendum and elections as a maneuver designed to stave off more radical change...

...After the Constitution was approved in March, debate shifted to the November elections...

...for 30 years...

...In the words of one peasant organizer: "with the increased repression, the struggle just takes different forms depending on the circumstance...

...Since its inception, Lavalas was an arranged marriage between the popular movement from which Aristide sprang and anti-Macoute elites characterized by the National Front for Change and Democracy (FNCD), whose legal status Aristide used in his run for the presidency...

...It is the popular movement, however, which is gaining in strength, insight and stamina for the long journey up this mountain range and on to the next...

...Sometimes we felt that they considered us more of an enemy than the Macoutes...

...jet on Feb- was Dechoukaj...

...Today, the Central Workers Union (CGT), founded in October, 1986, is the most militant of Haiti's three federations of unions...

...They were doing nothing but political repression...

...Through demonstrations, strikes, land takeovers, written and audio publications, and the occasional use of "popular justice," popular organizations have advanced demands ranging from agrarian reform to university autonomy [see "Profiles of the Popular Currents," page 32...

...In March, 1987, the MPP formed the National Peasant Movement of the Papay Congress (MPNKP), which reported 100,000 members before the 1991 coup d'etat...

...government does...

...the U.S...

...does not like Aristide's vision of redistribution...

...12 Yet, in spite of the advantages offered by the presence of one of their own in the National Palace, the movement was also faced with a new set of challenges...

...The July massacre in Jean Rabel of over 300 peasants advocating land reform reinforced this mistrust of the electoral process and fueled calls by militants for a total boycott...

...government went to special lengths to counter the demands of Haiti's labor movement...

...Consisting of ten to 15 members, gwoupman gave peasants a collective base of resis- tance against the rural structures of exploitation and repression...

...T he September 1991 coup came mercilessly...

...said Fritz, "so [Namphy] sent everybody back home to study the Constitution...

...These groups began to articulate a range of and would-if political Dechoukaj were allowed to VOL XXVII, No 4 JAN/FEB 1994 31REPORT ON HAITI run its course-ultimately be held accountable to the more militant bases...

...Yet, until Duvalier's downfall, virtually all unions-with the exception of the U.S.-backed Federation of Workers Union (FOS)-operated underground...

...The movement's effectiveness has been mitigated by brutal repression, a chronic lack of resources, and political opportunism...

...0 On February 4, 1991-three days before his inauguration-Aristide announced the replacement of the "Lavalas Operation" with the "Lavalas Organization...

...viding a common thread to link catechists, peasants, students and workers...

...Yet, according to a U.S...

...He gave three reasons: "a basic U.S...

...Having emerged from Duvalier's 30-year reign of terror with little organizing experience, the movement is still struggling to overcome a seemingly inescapable legacy of marginalization...

...After Baby Doc's downfall, the movement sought to formally structure itself...

...Committees organize to demand potable water and electricity, to protest the high cost of living, and to defend themselves against crime and extortion...

...The political opening allowed activists to spin off and build peasant, student, and other popular organizations...

...Aware that the empowerment Lavalas instilled in the masses has been reinforced by two years of popular resistance, the reformists fear that they will not be able to contain the pressure for deep and sweeping change that will inevitably be liberated if the military regime is ousted through mass mobilization...

...Recent reports in the New York Times have exposed the CIA's nefarious role in propping up Haiti's corrupt military rulers...

...The Congress produced a platform endorsing the constitutional referendum and laying the groundwork for a center-left political party...

...short...

...involvement in the coup which ousted Aristide, the list of junta members or supporters who received substantial amounts of U.S...

...4. "Key Haiti Leaders Said To Have Been In The CIA's Pay," New York Times, November 1, 1993...

...Discussions of "a new formula of struggle" and a more active resistance are multiplying as militants strategize about how to turn disillusionment into defiance and how to is destroyed in the rejuvenate international solidarity...

...L.R...

...The use of church-based train- ing programs and the emergence of the church-fund- ed popular radio station Radyo Soley further politicized and fortified the Ti Legliz sector...

...men ii pa twonpe lapli"-the leaky house may fool the sun, but not the rain...

...fighters, making conciliatory declarations...

...Translated literally as "uprooting" ruary 7, 1986...

...Uniting virtually all sectors across ideological and class divides, however, was the clarion call to banish the hated Duvalierists from the political scene...

...6 A 12-member interim State Council, co-governing with Trouillot, was created to prepare elections...

...Indeed, it was this potential that most expression in a myriad of grassroots organizations, unnerved the reformist camp, many of whose adhersome newly formed and others emerging from clan- ents benefited at least indirectly from the status quo destinity...

...30NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 30 NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICASREPORT ON HAITI concrete demandsfrom land reform to Creole-language literacy programs...

...After President Aristide's victory, support for political projects in Haiti soared again with the addition of a five-year, $24 million package for "Democracy Enhancement...

...2. "Haiti After The Coup: Sweatshop or Real Development...

...4 Not only did the CIA and the U.S...

...They always say it's not to block you...

...Relying on tactics such as marches and land takeovers, peasant groups demanded agrarian reform, elimination of the repressive section chiefs, repopulation of Creole pigs eradicated by U.S.AID between 1981 and 1983, tax reform, and promotion of Haitian Creole...

...When the Governors Island accord was signed, popular organizations expressed support for President Aristide, yet denounced the document's content and voiced skepticism that the military and the international community would deliver on their part of the bargain...

...This signified a divorce from the FNCD, which became threatened by the prospect of a rival party that would inherit Lavalas' glory...

...tax dollars to actively oppose a minimumwage increase from $33 to $.50 an hour proposed by the Aristide government...

...Under the guise of "democratization," "development," and "the war on drugs," these agencies have funneled millions of dollars to military and intelligence agencies, political parties, and nongovernmental organizations within Haiti in order to destabilize genuine popular organizations and build conservative alternatives...

...A Port-au-Prince bus stop near one of the many political murals painted in Haiti during Aristide's tenure...

...His motive was clear: to build an independent political structure around the mass mobilization of the people...

...Another national movement is Tht Kole Ti Peyizan (Heads Together Little Peasants), which has its roots in meetings held by peasant delegates starting in September, 1986...

...Whenever the people were highly mobilized," lamented "Fritz," "instead of having a clear and unified call to action, you would find those guys ready, behind closed doors, to talk to [hard-line junta General] Regala, to talk to Namphy...

...As political elites positioned themselves for the 1990 elections, most people refused to take the bait, remaining indifferent to the process...

...4. Haiti Progrbs, November 25 to December 1, 1987...

...As the Haitians say, "baboukHt-la and often equated singularly with "necklacing"-exetonbe"-the horse was unbridled...

...In addition to these intrinsic obstacles, the popular movement is ensnared in dialectical struggle with the reformist sectors of Haiti's broader "democratic" movement...

...They chose to rely almost exclusively on internationally sponsored negotiations to resolve the crisis...

...They also joined the call to take a vote of no confidence against Aristide's Prime Minister Ren6 Preval in the summer of 1991, just before the coup...

...15 Haiti's Popular Resistance 1. Phone interview with authors, November 4,1993...

...istration remained bloated with corrupt civil servants, Through its exuberant emergence in 1986, its often and the Tontons Macoute still held powerful governpainful debates about strategy from 1987 to 1989, its ment posts...

...1 Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier was finally One of the strategies employed in this mobilization whisked away to France on a U.S...

...The other two-FOS and OGITHboth receive funding from the National Endowment for Democracy (NED), and toe a more moderate line...

...After Duvalier's fall, they devel32NACL4 REPORT ON THE AMERICAS NACIA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 32REPORT ON HAITI CNG to play fair...

...Lured by prestige or money, some grassroots leaders left the popular sector to take positions in the government...

...Because "Fritz" is underground, his real name cannot be used in this article...

...Interview conducted by the Haitian Information Bureau on September 8, 1993, Port-au-Prince...

...In a familiar scenario, the newly opened political space was monopolized by traditional reformists who made an unholy alliance with interim President Ertha Pascal-Trouillot, a Duvalierist...

...5 Two coups and one bogus election later, the popular movement emerged to reclaim the streets in March, 1990 to force dictator-of-the-hour Gen...

...was over...

...Haiti Progres, October 24-30, 1990...

...5. Phone interview, November 4, 1993...

...More recently, the organization has been a vocal critic of the reformist sector within the Lavalas camp...

...Baby Doc went into For their part, the reformists have come to a dangerous crossroads where they must choose between a deeper alliance with a self-interested international community or a tactical unity with an increasingly militant popular movement...

...However, a series of internal crises, compounded by a stepped-up U.S...

...The more militant sector of the popular movement was skeptical...

...The U.S...

...The Autonomous Central of Haitian Workers (CATH) emerged out of clandestinity in 1986 to become the most powerful federation of unions in the country...

...Resource Center details how "NED and AID have tried to craft a carefully tailored electoral democracy based on conservative interest groups...

...Henri Namphy...

...Add to these a U.S...

...Many FNCD parliamentarians aligned with other blocs to create gridlock by blocking key initiatives of the executive branch...

...After the coup d'etat, the CIA used the distorted data it obtained in a vociferous attempt to discredit President Aristide and his supporters in the popular movement...

...Clearly, there was more to Duvalierism than the Duvaliers themselves...

...While a general consensus had emerged around the need to eventually replace Haiti's Constitution and hold new elections, there was debate about whether or not such steps could be taken in the repressive climate under CNG rule...

...9 This time, however, the militant camp had the upper hand...

...Student Movement Although Haitian students have been active since the U.S...

...Many within the popular movement were leery of this strategy, warning, in the words of MPP spokesperson Chavannes Jean-Baptiste, that "only the heat of mobilization will make the pot of negotiations boil...

...In January, 1987, a broad spectrum of democratic groups was invited to participate in the Congress of Haiti's Democratic Movements (KONAKOM...

...This newfound taste of liberty whetted an appetite for Popular militants were convinced that Dechoukaj, justice and a desire to organize collectively for funda- left to gain momentum, could successfully transfer mental change...

...We will either take it all the way," warned Aristide, "or reject it categorically...

...One of the more militant organizations within the popular movement, the APN was the first to propose Aristide as a national leader...

...For the first time in nearly three real power from the Duvalierists and the elites to the decades, the voices of Haiti's poor majority found poor majority...

...Other Not all of Haiti's popular organizations can be easily classified into categories...

...Echoing the Duvalier-appointed Catholic Bishops, the reformists launched a propaganda offensive highlighting the street-justice aspect of Dechoukaj and calling for national reconciliation...

...Yet, as with past setbacks, many within the ranks of the popular movement were further radicalized by this experience...

...Explained "Fritz," a well-known militant triumph at the polls in 1990, and its scrappy resistance who has spent over 20 years in the struggle, "we all to more than two years of a coup d'6tat, the popular witnessed Duvalier's departure...

...8. Haiti Progrbs, October 24-30, 1990...

...Their aim is, as summed up by the Resource Center report, "to unravel the power and influence of grassroots organizations that formed the popular base of the Aristide government...

...Rache manybk"-literally "pull out your roots"-became the order of the day as the junta was urged to exit the political scene...

...They disguise meetings as games of dominoes or konbit, the traditional cooperative work teams used in rural areas...

...Although student participation in the ouster of Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier was massive, it was largely unorganized...

...The reformists "need the popular mobilization when they are under fire," said "Fritz," "but once they get the Macoutes off their backs, they make an alliance with the bourgeoisie to Currents oped into a myriad of local and regional peasant organizations...

...Then, we began to realize that Duvalier was just the tip of the iceberg, and that we had to start A fter months of sustained popular mobilization, mobilizing on all fronts...

...Established by the United States in 1991, PIRED is directed by U.S...

...occupation in 1915, Frangois "Papa Doc" Duvalier dealt a serious blow to the movement by eliminating the leadership of the National Union of Haitian Students (UNEH) in the late 1960s...

...Their reflections yielded a mixed assessment...

...and drive the masses away from the political arena...

...3 In March, the newly formed National Popular Assembly (APN) called for a boycott of both the referendum and the elections...

...Instead of urging the population to keep pressing "The reformers need with their demands, they acted like firethe popular mobilization when they are under fire, but once they get the Macoutes off their backs, they make an alliance with the bourgeoisie to block any deeper change...

...government saw the emergence of Haiti's popular movement as a threat, which it attempted to contain and counter using the National Endowment for Democracy (NED), the United States Agency for International Development (U.S.AID) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA...

...In 1986, for example, the CIA set up and provided funding for the National Intelligence Service (SIN) under the guise of fighting narcotics...

...military establishment forge ties m issymbolically with the most anti-democratic ele- ments of Haiti's military-training these officers and paying them for information-but the agency also actively participated in estab- lishing and maintaining repressive structures inside Haiti...

...offensive aimed at coopting grassroots cadres [see "'Democracy Enhancement'-U.S...

...The National Labor Committee Education Fund in Support of Worker and Human Rights in Central America, New York, 1993, p. 17...

...And, while FNCD sought to usher candidates into other offices on Aristide's coattails, the popular movement saw the elections only as a vehicle for mobilization, and reiterated its readiness to boycott them if necessary...

...Others, such as the Peasant Movement of Papay (MPP), took a more nuanced position, endorsing the Constitution despite certain misgivings...

...Founded in the early 1970s and operating in semiclandestinity until 1986, the Peasant Movement of Papay (MPP) is Haiti's oldest peasant organization...

...1. "Populism, Conservatism and Civil Society in Haiti," NED Backgrounder (Albuquerque, NM: Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center, April 1992...

...Phone interview with authors, October 28, 1993...

...The brigades also served as dynamic networks of information sharing and political organizing...

...After we braved the army's bullets and riot gear to force Avril out, the suit-and-tie types took over," explained Calixte, a leader of the Coordination of Popular Organizations...

...ary changes in the country's traditional order and to establish a truly participatory democracy...

...Boukman, a maroon of Jamaican origin, led the 1791 slave revolt that culminated in Haiti's independence...

...Finally, some militants opted for a leave of absence from their organizing activities to indulge in the Lavalas euphoria...

...They use the vehicle of the popular church to spread the message of hope.13 Yet, with President Aristide in exile and isolated from his popular bases, reformist elements within Lavalas came to dominate its policy-making structure...

...They say you are unrealistic, you are extremist, you are a purist...

...If the road has thorns, we know what shoes to wear...

...Haiti's contemporary maroons have replaced the conch shell that revolutionary maroon leader Boukman used to call the slaves to action with underground bulletins, leaflets and cassette tapes...

...Landless peasants danced alongside large chief structure, students fought to end state control of landowners, and slum-dwellers celebrated beside the university, and the masses were galvanized to disindustrialists, mantle not just the Tontons Macoute themselves, but With the bit of the brutal Duvalier dictatorship out the political machine that created and sustained them of the people's mouth, everything seemed possible...

...8 Not surprisingly, the Lavalas alliance was marred by internal friction from the outset...

...Neighborhood Committees Primarily organized in poor urban areas, neighborhood committees emerged as marginalized residents sought to improve the lot of their communities...

...Not until late 1986 did the movement begin to restructure itself...

...Many have broad-based constituencies which include workers, peasants, students and others...

...Lowenthal maintained in an interview that PIRED does not oppose the Aristide Sa government, but he confessed that he believes the U.S...

...This adage reflects the saga of Haiti's popular movement...

...if there's a river in our path, we are prepared to swim...

...Only seven months earlier, reformists had ignored calls by the APN and the National Front Against Repression to install the populist priest as interim national leader...

...Style The U.S...

...Nathan, a student from Petit Goave, summed up the frustration: "Every time we were ready to turn up the heat, the b r international community intensified negotiations, and everyone was sent back underground to 'wait and see.' If it wasn't leaky sanctions, it was the OAS/UN Observer Mission, and the waiting game continued...

...With a democratically elected popular government in power for the first time in Haiti's history, the climate was ripe for grassroots organizations to solidify their structures, empower and expand their bases, and advance their demands...

...An April 1992 report on Haiti from An effigy ofUncle the Inter-Hemispheric Education "necklaced...

...Within a week, electoral rolls doubled as over a million new voters flocked to register...

...The previous favorite for the FNCD presidential nomination, KONAKOM's Victor Benoit, quickly dubbed Aristide's bid "political adventurism," and called upon party members to suspend all electoral activities...

...M.V.A...

...6. Interview, September 14, 1993, Port-au-Prince...

...M.V.A...

...UNEH's successor is the National Federation of Haitian Students (FENEH), formed in March, 1987, and based in Port-au-Prince...

...After an NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 0 34REPORT ON HAITI arduous six-hour drive from the Central Plateau, the 100-member delegation from Haiti's oldest peasant group presented their demands, talked with the President about their future, and joined him in an animated chorus of the MPP's theme song: "let's join forces to liberate Haiti...

...The Dechoukaj embraced much more than popular street makeup of this collective victory party reflected the justice...

...A National Coordinating Com- mittee was established with representatives from diocesan TKLs throughout the country...

...We were in the streets yelling, 'Namphy is going to fall...

...Today various neighborhood committees are loosely linked under the umbrella of the Federation of Neighborhood Committees (FEDKKA...

...4 As the international community extracted deeper concessions from the Aristide government, criticism of the negotiating process grew...

...According to research conducted by the National Labor Committee, "U.S.AID used U.S...

...Baby Doc had passed the baton to the Duvalierist National Governing Council (CNG), a six-member junta headed by Gen...

...Peasant Groups The seeds of Haiti's peasant movement were plant- ed in the late 1960s in the form of farming cooperatives, or gwoupman...

...During Aristide's presidency," explained Ben Dupuy, co-director of the weekly "Democracy Enhancements'-U.S...

...Theoretically, there movement is coming into its own-gaining force with was no more dictatorship, and the era of repression each victory and learning lessons from each defeat...

...VOL XXVII, No 4 JAN/FEB '1994 35 Vot XXVil, No 4 JAN/FEB 1994 35REPORT ON HAITI Ha''ti Progras and a founder of the APN, "APN's concern was to...make people aware that even though they were formally in power...the forces against progress were still very strong and there was no guarantee the present situation would last...

...They have all kinds of names for you...

...A Haitian official concurred, saying SIN was "heavily involved in spying on so-called subversive groups...

...Brutal section chiefs still Despite these challenges, Haiti's popular movement ruled the countryside with impunity, the public adminhas grown bigger and stronger over the past decade...

...Peasants organized to eliminate the brutal sectionthe dictator...

...Yet, once again, their victory was cut The 1987 elections ended in a blood bath-further radicalizing the popular movement...

...4 As election day neared, however, "rache manybk" was modified to encourage the masses to shift their energies from street mobilization to an "electoral cleanup"-voting Duvalierists out of office...

...anthropologist Ira Lowenthal...

...Because FNCD reformists could not control the alliance, they became Aristide's most bitter enemies, and many actively participated in destabilizing his government...

...To its credit, the movement's resistance and mobilization had kept the restoration of democracy to Haiti high on the international agenda two full years after the September 1991 coup d'6tat...

...What is important," said Aristide announcing his candidacy, "is to know the moment when history calls upon us to forge a tactical unity...in order to stop the Macoutes...

...Despite Baby Doc's departure, the pillars of Duvalierism remained intact...

...Democracy-enhancement programs try to strengthen conservative forces within the legislature, the local government structures, and civil society at large...

...Yet, as painful reminders of the movement's limitations, the military junta remained entrenched in power, a wave of brutal repression threatened to drive popular organizations completely underground, and strategies to resolve the crisis were being worked out in diplomatic suites without the input or participation of the grassroots...

...They essentially informed us that our involvement in the process was over and that the affair had moved to air-conditioned suites where we, the masses, were not welcome...

...But when the Macoutes come back to haunt them, they are quick to cry for help...

...ristide's last-minute entry into the presidential contest instantly changed this equation...

...Committees often formed "vigilance brigades" which erected barricades, and interrogated and searched suspicious individuals in an effort to provide security to residents...

...One of FranCois Duvalier's tom its primary objectives was Dechoukaj process afte to destroy the popular movement exile in 1987...

...funding is rapidly growing...

...Even many who endorsed the elections doubted the will of the Profiles of the Popular Ti Legliz-the Little Church Many of Haiti's popular organizations trace their roots back to the Ti Kominote Legliz (TKL), for it was in these ecclesiastical base communities that activists found cover during the repressive Duvalier era...

...embassy official cited by the New York Times, SIN "never produced drug intelligence" but rather used the $500,000 to $1 million they received annually from the United States "for political reasons, against whatever group they wanted to gather information on...

...To withstand the repression, the Haitian people revived the concept of mawonaj (marronage), a form of clandestine resistance deeply rooted in their historical rebellion against slavery...

...3. Interview with Marx Aristide, September, 1993, Port-au-Prince...

...In early 1987, merely one year after Duvalier's downfall, tensions between the revolutionary ideals of the militant camp and the petitbourgeois tendencies of the reformists flared...

...Prosper Avril from power...

...reflex against populism...

...Furthermore, although a multitude of self-proclaimed popular organizations was taking shape, particularly in Port-au-Prince, many were devoid of any real base and were headed by opportunists merely seeking power and status...

...Tet Kole has gwoupman in each of Haiti's nine departments, and is strongest in the northwest town of Jean Rabel...

...2 The main conduit for democracy-enhancement funding in Haiti is the Integrated Project for the Reinforcement of Democracy in Haiti, or PIRED...

...The dialectical debate between these two camps continues...

...With a legitimate representative of the masses shaping the political debate, the reformists could not control the outcome...

...destabilization campaign, split CATH into various factions...

...Interview with authors, November 15, 1993, Washington, DC...

...This reformist camp-consisting of certain politicians, intellectuals, and members of the business elite-remains preoccupied with establishing formal democracy through elections and superficial reforms...

...1 Funding for such activities began in earnest with the fall of the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986 and increased sharply in 1989-1990 in preparation for the elections...

...So, the people had to take advantage of this space and period to consolidate themselves instead of looking for quick solutions or individual benefits...

...7. Haiti Progrbs, March 7-15, 1990...

...Made up of a wealth of base ecclesiastical communities, peasant groups, labor unions, student organizations and neighborhood associations, the popular movement espouses mass mobilization as the means to institute revolutionMarx V. Aristide and Laurie Richardson are coordinators of the Quixote Center's Haiti Reborn campaign...

...7 Faced with the return from exile of hard-line Duvalierist Roger Lafontant and the slick, U.S.-funded campaign of Marc Bazin, it was now the reformists who asked Aristide to join with them to stave off these threats...

...The masses once cution by means of a burning tire-the concept of again took to the streets, this time to celebrate...

...The tension between these two currents remains the most formidable impediment to the success of the popular movement, because although the reformists oppose hard-line Duvalierism, they do not share the popular movement's more radical long-term vision for a new Haiti...

...Shortly after his inauguration, President Aristide welcomed the MPP to the National Palace...

...Labor Unions Haiti has a rich tradition of cooperative and union organizing...

...As testament to its complexity, this period elicits divergent assessments within the popular movement even to this day...

...This marked the birth of "Operation Lavalas...

...Other religious- ly based groups cropped up, including Solidarite Ant Jen and Veye Yo...

...3. Phone interview, November 4, 1993...

...Calling for university autonomy and the removal of Duvalierists from the educational system, FENEH's methods of organizing include boycotts, demonstrations and building takeovers...

...After the coup, FNCD parliamentarians Eddy Dupiton and Bernard Sansaricq became prominent negotiators for the coup regime...

...Founded in November, 1986, ZEL has campaigned to demand free basic education for all...

...The strategy worked brilliantly...

...A variety of high school and youth organizations have also emerged, key among them Zafb Elev Lek6l (ZEL...

...But above all, we keep struggling because that's our only chance for a brighter tomorrow...

...In fact, its most potent dimension was politibroad tactical unity which had formed in opposition to cal...

...2. Phone interview, November 4, 1993...

...and Aristide is a small black man talk- ing trash...

...While temporarily forcing the movement to retreat, the aborted elections paradoxically advanced the popular movement's long-term struggle by highlighting the limitations of the reformist strategy in confronting the Duvalierists...

...The failure of the accord has reinforced the popular movement's conviction that they can no longer wait for deliverance and must mobilize their own forces to topple the coup regime...

...Port-au-Prince's Ti Legliz Coordinating Committee urged the people to "remain mobilized against these elections, whose results-no matter what-will not resolve the fundamental problems of the people...

...9. Radio M6tropole, October 18, 1990...

...2 H aitian wisdom warns that "kay koule twonpe soley...

...As the oft-invoked Haitian adage says, "dkyd mbn, gen mbn"-beyond these mountains lie more mountains...

...One such example is the National Popular Assembly (APN...

...While the reformists have historically used the masses to tip the balance of power at such junctures, they are hesitant to revert to this strategy...

...By 1986, gwoupman had become widespread and extremely politicized...

...3 Although evidence has yet to be unearthed proving U.S...

...The popular movement found particularly alarming the deafening silence of the reformists in the face of increasing threats of military intervention...

...By virtue of greater resources and control of major media outlets, they were able to bring Dechoukaj to a halt by mid-1986...

...They targeted people who were for change...