Will Miami Fall Next?
Torres, Maria de los Angeles
A POWERFUL BOMB EXPLODED OUTSIDE THE doors of Miami's Cuban Museum of Arts and Culture, in the early morning hours of June 14. It blew off the front of the building and caused considerable...
...A poll taken at the height of the frenzy about the "imminent fall" of Fidel Castro, showed only half of the community supported such maneuvers [UPI, Feb...
...Max Azicri, "The Politics of Exile: Trends and Dynamics of Political Change Among Cuban-Americans...
...Bosch is the archetypal Cuban-American "terrorist," a good representative of that small fraction of the community that has gained such prominence in the media's pantheon of minority stereotypes...
...spokesperson for the island-based Cuban Commission on Human Rights and National Reconciliation...
...An embarrassed Soviet Embassy quickly telegrammed members of their delegation to distance themselves from the Foundation and to meet with representatives of other groups in the Cuban-American community...
...Economists at Florida International University have suggested that the "miracle enclave," the thriving selfenclosed community in the Miami area, has not created as many jobs as proponents claim...
...Their switch to the Republican Party paralleled the national shift and may be more reflective of the degree to which the community has become integrated into U.S...
...The Marielitos added a new dimension to the already diverse Cuban-American community...
...Elizabeth A. Palmer, "TV Marti Wins Its First Test in House...But Broadcasters Fear Castro's Fury," Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, June 23, 1990, pp...
...The Revolution came in a flood of talk, as Fidel exhorted, explained, reasoned with, and aroused Cuba's millions day after day, night after night, four, five, six hours at a time...
...1, 1988...
...2nd sess., Sept...
...5. Sergio Diaz-Briquets and Lisandro Pdrez, "Cuba: the Demography of Revolution," in Population Bulletin, No...
...What they do not want is U.S...
...The Republicans elevated Cuban-Americans to high ranks within the foreign policy establishment and the party hierarchy...
...But, in comparison to U.S...
...Much to the chagrin of the Cuban-American Left, visitors often came back more embittered than before...
...Despite these healthy signs, the obsession with Cuba remains at the heart of Cuban-American politics...
...Over the next few months, over 120,000 Cubans were processed by U.S...
...Under the leadership of veteran Castro-hater Jorge Mis Canosa, CANF has since taken on a life of its own and become one of the most effective lobbies on Capitol Hill...
...27Cuba II compiled data on 44,211 Cubans...
...But, he added, "Some of those subversive plans [of the U.S...
...Cuba responded to Reagan's threats and economic pressure by closing the doors to the CubanAmerican community...
...Leaving Cuba for the United States was considered treason-even if an individual left for reasons other than disaffection from the revolution...
...The pervasive involvement of right-wing exiles in the operation of Radio Marti is a major source of aggravation to the Cuban government...
...Cuban-Americans are also on the Miami's Little Havana: Not all Cuban immigrants live "Horatio Perez" success stories VOLUME XXIV...
...troops...
...This gave it legitimacy within the traditional halls of power at a time when the White House was pursuing a similar foreign policy agenda throughout the world...
...Those who advocate normal relations or even conversations with the Cuban government are labeled "traitors" and "communists...
...2 0 While CubanAmerican family income is higher than that of other minority families, it is still below that of the average white North American family...
...economic and diplomatic hostility to Cuba.' Terrorism is a part of the political culture of the CubanAmerican community, a method legitimized by U.S...
...Marti] going to be...
...Spanish-language stations and other program producers in Miami have the inside track on Radio Marti contracts, and frequent internal financial irregularities have been uncovered...
...Long live Christ, Hallelujah, and an end to the blockade of Cuba...
...The leaders of over twenty other Miami organizations, including Montaner and Ram6n Cernuda, sprang to Arcos' defense...
...4. Report to the Senate by the Commission on Immigration, 1910...
...In 1985, the Reagan Administration launched Radio Marti to supplant the old VOA service that had broadcast to Cuba since the Missile Crisis...
...Through its political action committee, CANF has donated generously to allies on Capitol Hill and severely punished detractors, using voting records on Radio and T.V...
...Cuba and the United States soon realized that the lack of an immigration agreement hurt both sides, and in 1986 they began secret negotiations in Mexico...
...The United States and Cuba are notable exceptions...
...The Cuban government viewed visits by relatives as a source of foreign exchange...
...When the Cuban Revolution triumphed in 1959, an estimated 124,000 Cubans were living in the United States...
...In practice, a Cuban station comparable to Radio Marti would be an engineering, legal, and political nightmare for any U.S...
...the United States dragged its feet processing visas, in effect creating a bottleneck of discontented people.' 5 On April 6, 1980, a group of Cubans in search of asylum crashed their car into the Peruvian Embassy in Havana, killing a guard...
...7 After the Bay of Pigs debacle, the station was renamed "Radio Americas" and moved to Florida, where it continued to urge the Cuban people to burn crops, sabotage public utilities, and rise up against Fidel Castro...
...Carlos Mufiiz, a founder of the Antonio Maceo Brigade, and Eulalio Negrin, who participated in the dialogue with the Cuban government, were both assassinated...
...But the argument does not hold water...
...Furthermore, the higher percentage of Cuban-American women in the labor force inflates average family income...
...Grupo Areito, Contra viento y marea (La Habana: Casa de las Amdricas, 1978...
...Author's interview, June 27, 1990...
...economic and diplomatic pressure, but it has never been able to fully protect itself from a massive U.S...
...Maria de los Angeles Torres, "The Community: Working Against the Miami Myth," The Nation, Vol...
...electronic assault...
...Undeniably, better U.S.-Cuban relations would help create an atmosphere in which the community could begin to face its own problems with less rancor and intolerance...
...The Cuban-American Left's hopes that the trips would encourage good will were dashed...
...military actions against Cuba, including the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion.' The United States politicized the emigration process itself, with special programs to help transport and settle 6migr6s...
...On July 17 the Justice Department released anti-Castro activist Orlando Bosch from prison...
...Last spring, the Cuban government allowed Cruz to bring the first group of Marielitos back to Cuba to visit relatives...
...State Department, Current Policy No...
...It managed to get a contract from the Immigration i`id Naturalization Service to process Cubans in third countries en route to the United States...
...campuses experienced a radicalization process that was to have surprising political implications in the long run...
...commercial radio broadcasts as far away as Utah and Iowa as a "test and demonstration" of its ability to respond...
...Marti, the most recent in a long line of U.S...
...The median income of Mexican and Puerto Rican males increased during the same period, while that of Cuban males decreased...
...And Mais Canosa's Cuban-American National Foundation sponsored a May 24 Washington press conference featuring director Jackie Tillman and Gorbachev advisor Andrei Kortunov...
...New York Times, April 1, 1990...
...Martf like Sen...
...But in the 1980s, the means and ends of the 1960s were revived...
...Economy: Comparative Perspectives on the U.S...
...shores, that they were not the white middle-class exiles of the 1960s...
...government support...
...Mis was appointed the first and only chair of the presidential advisory board that overseas Radio and T.V...
...In its place, the United States launched a diplomatic and ideological offensive to isolate Cuba economically and politically, while simultaneously conducting deep undercover acts of terrorism and sabotage...
...Some of these monster Cuban transmitters have 500 kilowatts of power-ten times that of any radio station licensed in the United States.' 4 A technical study by the National Association of Broadcasters concluded that such a Cuban action would "wreak interference havoc from New York to California...
...Joseph McCarthy helped stem the anticommunist hysteria of the 1950s, appreciated the political power of the medium and recognized its potential for abuse...
...Mary's University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Nov...
...As long as Cubans on the island have no avenue for dissent short of leaving the country, relations between Cuba and the community abroad will be relegated to national security interests...
...Cuba attributed its change in policy to the fact that the United States was not using these 6migr6s for terrorism...
...The government then opened the port of Mariel, west of Havana...
...2. Ibid...
...Marti is controlled by the Cuban-American National Foundation, its opposition to the station will be all the more severe and unyielding...
...and then Interior Minister Sergio del Valle, among others...
...Although the members of these organizations are aging, they still practice admittedly symbolic military maneuvers in "secret" weekend camps and remain active in the community...
...That year, the Cuban government announced the capture of the last remnants of the counterrevolution...
...Instead of erasing Cuban-Americans' ties to the island, 30 years of tension have only increased their need to resolve the References Passive Aggressive 1. U.S...
...Census identified only 15,133 Cubans, a special report to the Senate on immigrants entering the United States from 1899 to 1910 VOLUME XXIV, NUMBER 3 (NOVEMBER 1990) Maria de los Angeles Torres teaches at DePaul University in Chicago and writes frequently on Cuban-American politics...
...Yet Radio Marti operates without approval of the Cuban Ministry of Communications and in apparent violation of international agreements...
...Ibid...
...Family visits resumed but only for humanitarian reasons, though the price of the trip was reduced considerably...
...7 Having gained control of the media, most businesses and the electoral arena, these forces sought to impose a single, rigid anti-Castro viewpoint, using intimidation and violence to silence opponents...
...Jorge Mds Canosa, who fled Cuba in 1960 and trained for the Bay of Pigs invasion, aspires to be the next president of Cuba...
...That same year, over twenty bombs went off in the homes and businesses of supporters of an opening toward Cuba...
...Areito, Vol VII, No...
...While sitcoms and news are unlikely to cause the unraveling of the Cuban Revolution, T.V...
...television propaganda to Cuban audiences.' The project was part of Operation Mongoose, the infamous CIA campaign to unseat Castro...
...Cuban officials interviewed over the past six months, however, argue that sovereignty, not the content of the broadcasts, is the central issue...
...That organization is the Cuban American National Foundation...
...Since Radio Marti was announced in the early 1980s, however, Cuba has been preparing to take a dramatically more aggressive stance on the broadcasting battlefield...
...6. U.S...
...Many parents were afraid their children would be targets of extremists who had vowed to kill anyone daring to travel to Cuba...
...The notion of the "golden exile," propagated by sensational journalistic accounts of Cuban-American "Horatio P6rezes," is a myth...
...The standard broadcasting band in the United States is jam-packed...
...immigrant programs, even politically correct (i.e., rightwing) exiles faced discrimination and prejudice...
...I coined a phrase at the time: VOLUME XXIV, NUMBER 3 (NOVEMBER 1990) 31Cuba II The effect on the Cuban population was equally dramatic...
...Describing it as "television aggression," the Cuban government immediately began jamming the signal, claiming its "legitimate right to reject any action against its sovereignty.'" After President Bush gave final approval to the project in August, Cuba stood poised to retaliate by transmitting its own radio broadcasts throughout the continental United States, and thereby causing serious disruption to the U.S...
...After the Cuban Missile Crisis, the White House ordered an intensification of U.S...
...4 Proponents of T.V...
...Class divisions sharpened and advocacy groups seeking better social services emerged...
...IN SPITE OF THEIR SUPPORT FOR AN EXTREME right-wing foreign policy, Cuban-American elected officials tend to be more liberal in their social agenda than other Republicans...
...Marti in order to forestall additional U.S...
...It, in turn, responded cautiously but favorably, allowing a group of 55 young Cubans, mostly from the United States and Puerto Rico, to travel to the island...
...For example, in 1979 Rosario Moreno, head of a Los Angeles travel agency that arranged trips to Cuba, came home to find her two children cowering in a corner after shots were fired through her living room window...
...The Uni6n Liberal Cubana, for example, led by Christian Democrat Carlos Alberto Montaner, has emerged as a strong rival to the Foundation and Mis Canosa, to speak for the community on Cuba's future...
...This bomb was apparently an attempt to cow Ram6n Cernuda, a member of the museum's board of directors and the U.S...
...JSN Foundation also publishes reports on Cuba, including analyses of the economy, universities and intelligence agencies...
...Recently, he warmly welcomed into his organization the Novo brothers-reputed to be connected to the murder of Orlando Letelier and Ronni Moffitt...
...Key positions at the stations are held by trusted insiders, who administer in an authoritarian style, according to an unpublished report by the Voice of America, the station's During the Reagan years, a new, more sophisticated form of right-wing politics arose in the community...
...negotiators unable to grant Cuba a broadcasting quid pro quo, the talks stalled...
...On the Cuban-American side broad sectors of the community were represented, from bankers to nuns...
...From 1962 to 1966, Cuba beamed Radio Free Dixie on homeland were fresher--they wanted closer ties to Cuba...
...at its worst, it became a breeding ground for terrorism...
...former ViceMinister of Foreign Affairs Ricardo Alarc6n...
...He spent 1 1 years in Venezuelan jails and was released in 1988 into the custody of U.S...
...Those who attempted to leave without government permission received severe penalties...
...Marti in 1988, they broke down completely...
...It immediately became apparent when the boatlift immigrants (dubbed "Marielitos") landed on U.S...
...Cuban Studies/Estudios Cubanos (July 1981-Jan...
...Growth of the USIA budget during this period far exceeded, on a percentage basis, the defense build-up for which the Reagan Administration is noted...
...Ernest F. Hollings (D-SC) early this year, "but he cannot begin to match the revolutionary potential of television...
...Any sign of official weakness in responding to this challenge, they believe, would invite domestic opposition and further U.S...
...In the 1960s, Cuban exiles became the foot soldiers for U.S...
...Unlike the bombing at the museum two years previous, this was not intended to protest the exhibition of art from the island...
...The Cuban government immediately lashed back by suspending an important immigration agreement with the United States, and it briefly disrupted U.S...
...Along with the foundation, Mds Canosa himself has grown into a political powerhouse...
...Progressives were reduced to negotiating for their own entry visas.' 6 standard AM broadcast frequencies to the southern United States...
...9, 1990...
...2 5 Over 3,000 people attended, making it the largest political event in the Latino commuNACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS nity during the election season...
...Those who advocate better relations with the community are "soft on dissidents...
...1204, August 2, 1989...
...Voice of America reduced its Cuban programming transmitted from Florida, and most of the clandestine stations disappeared as the CIA redirected its attention and resources elsewhere...
...24, 1988...
...It was not long before new voices began calling for rapprochement with Cuba and for a democratic opening within the community itself...
...They are perpetually embroiled in intrigue, personalism and the mentality that the ends justify the means...
...VOA veterans grumble that Radio Marti's low journalistic standards tarnish the image of the traditionally responsible VOA international service...
...With a phone call, Mds apparently can get the State Department to deny visas to Cubans from the island, as he did with the world-renowned dance band Orquesta Arag6n, when it was invited by the City of Chicago in 1988.'8 Mis is also said to have been behind the Treasury Department's invasion of Ram6n Cernuda's home and the continuing harassment of Cernuda's Cuban Museum of Arts and Culture by other federal and state agencies...
...They had been convinced that the Cuban Revolution enjoyed broad support...
...1930-31...
...2 2 A high proportion of Cuban-American workers, like those of other immigrant groups, labor in industries that are declining...
...Mariel not only proved to the government by television...
...government propaganda stations directed at Cuba...
...The latest defection was Ernesto Betancourt, director of Radio Marti, who resigned after his differences with Mis Canosa over T.V...
...While these were not necessarily in favor of normalizing relations with Cuba, their lack of concern for overthrowing Fidel Castro made them suspect to the right wing of the community, which still held sway...
...The culture of intolerance even erected language barriers between exiles and those who, for whatever reasons chose to stay in Cuba...
...Sylvia Pedraza-Bailey, Political and economic migrants in America: Cubans and Mexicans (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1985...
...Two weeks later, on December 8, 140 participants reconvened...
...Two years later, when the political winds in Washington changed, Espinosa denounced el didlogo in Soldier of Fortune magazine, claiming he had been recruited by Cuban intelligence to spy on the community...
...During the first year of Radio Marti-Mis Canosa is president of the Board-several of the younger journalists left to protest his dictatorial "Fidelista" style...
...The declassified memo describes how two specially equipped DC-6 aircraft flying at a maximum of 18,000 feet just outside Cuban airspace could deliver U.S...
...Cuban politics remained at the heart of the CubanAmerican community, forging a dual identity of immigrant and exile...
...Minutes after delivering a radio editorial condemning the use of violence in the spring of 1976, forexample, talk-show host Emilio Miliin had his legs blown off by a car bomb...
...NUMBER 3 (NOVEMBER 1990) average much older and therefore at a more productive point in their life cycle...
...government agencies involved in the covert war against Fidel Castro...
...promise to seek equal access for Cuba to U.S...
...Commerce Department, Bureau of the Census, 1960, 1970, 1980, and the Current Population Survey of 1986...
...The past two years have seen the emergence of several Miami-based groups, including the Cuban-American Committee for Family Rights,which work for the resolution of U.S.-Cuba issues affecting the community...
...1989...
...And, as long as the United States government encourages and appropriates exile organizations to do its bidding and uses immigration as a political tool, Cuba will continue to react defensively--even when such a reaction goes against its own interests...
...Kortunov if he knew of Mds Canosa's claim to the press...
...Kennedy took his advice...
...It gave the United States the right to intervene at will in Cuban affairs...
...In the 1970s even anticommunists and anti-Castroists became targets if they advocated an end to terrorism...
...He died the next day...
...Marti differs little in basic concept from its numerous predecessors...
...Nor were those who left allowed to return to visit...
...The Johnson Administration seemed less committed to toppling the revolution than President Kennedy had been...
...T HE CARTER ADMINISTRATION RE-ESTABlished diplomatic relations with the island in 1977, through "interest sections" in the embassies of third countries, and permitted the resumption of travel and cultural exchanges...
...Liberal Cuban-Americans, encouraged by these moves, initiated a dialogue with the Cuban government...
...Maria de los Angeles Torres, "From Exiles to Minorities: The Politics of Cuban Communities in the United States" (Ph.D...
...they had left the island for reasons other than clearly defined anticommunism...
...When the Peruvian government refused to turn them over to Cuban authorities, Cuba withdrew its guards and announced that anyone who wanted to leave the country should go to the Embassy...
...And there were members of the Antonio Maceo Brigade, young Cuban-Americans sympathetic to the revolution...
...foreign policyde Cuba...
...Paul Simon (D-IL) and Claiborne Pell (D-RI), the powerful Chairman of the Senate's Foreign Relations Committee, to renege on their historic support for improving relations with Cuba...
...PROPAganda broadcasts to Cuba continued at a low ebb...
...He recommended that the television system be used only if the United States invaded...
...The process of "pluralization" of the exile community was especially evident among young people...
...For example, Ernesto Betancourt, the longtime director of Radio Marti, was ousted this spring after he implied that Mis was using the station to further his own political ambitions...
...Joseito Cruz, president of the Coalition, believes that the ambience in both Miami and Cuba is changing for the better...
...Herbert Matthews, the late New York Times editorialist and chronicler of the Cuban revolution, described the phenomenon...
...1982), pp...
...Special stores were opened where visitors could pay top dollar for consumer goods in short supply, to give as presents...
...22, 1988...
...While sharing many of the same problems as immigrants from elsewhere in the Hemisphere, Cuban-Americans have a particularly complex relationship with their adopted country, owing to the intensity of U.S...
...Shortly after the Soviet-U.S...
...news and entertainment will facilitate the downfall of his regime...
...tests of Cuba's sovereignty...
...Some were manufacturers...
...Some have even traveled to Moscow to lobby members of the Supreme Soviet to introduce resolutions condemning Fidel Castro...
...If the United States continues to be an uninvited guest on Cuban domestic airwaves, then Cuba promises to respond in kind...
...OR THE NEXT TWO DECADES, U.S...
...Signing the final agreement for Cuba were: Fidel Castro, who had presided over the session...
...In March, the U.S...
...At the top of the Committee's agenda is better relations between U.S...
...5 (Summer 1982), pp...
...Even the Antonio Maceo Brigade was shut out...
...T.V...
...An organization called "J6venes Cubanos Socialistas" in Puerto Rico called for normalization of relations, a stance echoed by other sectors of the community...
...After hatching Radio Marti in the early 1980s, the National Security Council of the Reagan White House encouraged the creation of a front organization that would sell the plan to the press, Congress and the public...
...Of these, 100,000 had registered at Cuban consulates, attesting to the strength of the ties they felt with their homeland...
...2 With U.S...
...propaganda seeKs Io neigmen discontent with images of "development" Sen...
...Dissent was dealt with harshly, and those opposed to the direction taken by the revolution had two options: join the U.S.-backed military underground, or emigrate...
...NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS John Spicer Nichols teaches at Pennsylvania State University and writes frequently on communications and U.S...
...Radio Swan is not a radio station but a cage of hysterical parrots," Cuban government radio responded...
...The United States also may have succeeded in delaying Chile's resumption of normal relations with Cuba...
...Cuba defeated the U.S.-sponsored invasion force at the Bay of Pigs, survived numerous other covert actions of the Central Intelligence Agency, and resisted decades of U.S...
...During the revolutionary war, he effectively used Radio Rebelde, a clandestine station operated from his mountain stronghold, to harass the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista...
...Marti constitutes an overt intervention in violation of international telecommunications regulations that recognize the sovereignty of national broadcasting systems...
...Bernardo Benes, a Florida banker, was perhaps the most notable member of the establishment present...
...The mission of the station was to soften up Cuban audiences for the impending Bay of Pigs invasion...
...The Foundation is said to have a "hit list" of Cuban-American artists who have travelled to Cuba, including Nereida Garcia and, until her death, Ana Mendieta...
...This prospect has prompted U.S...
...But the intrusive properties of radio waves cut both ways...
...Overt radio broadcasts under the auspices of the USIA's Voice of America began in November 1962, while planning for additional covert broadcasting continued...
...7. Washington Post, April 3, 1990...
...By 1982, it had fallen to 30% lower...
...Officials of the exiled Social Democratic and Christian Democratic Parties are also pressing for normalization of relations with the Cuban government...
...House of Representatives, Subcommittees on International Operations and Western Hemisphere Affairs," "Foreign Policy Implications of TV Marti," 100th Cong...
...The inability to maintain complete control over its domestic airwaves has been a major source of aggravation to the Cuban revolutionary leadership...
...Marti is primarily a payoff to right-wing Cuban exiles who delivered Florida to the Bush campaign and made sizeable contributions to friendly candidates for Congress...
...Marti became public...
...Many were dark-skinned and most of them were poor or working-class...
...2 3 There have been success stories, such as the president of the board of Coca-Cola, Roberto Goizueta, and others in corporate mid-management positions, in the Miami Latino media, universities, entertainment and sports, including Jos6 Canseco of the Oakland Athletics...
...Its programming includes dubbed U.S...
...immigration officials...
...Information Agency began experimental television transmissions to Cuba from a blimp floating over South Florida.' The new station, named after Jos6 Marti, nineteenth-century hero of Cuban independence, broadcasts on a standard Cuban television channel each night that weather permits the blimp to be sent aloft...
...broadcasting to Cuba...
...The Radio and T.V...
...Influential in this process was a powerful lobbying organization, the Cuban American National Foundation, founded in Washington in 1980...
...He has also brought suspected terrorists into mainstream politics...
...Today the PAC boasts of having over 4,000 members...
...Investors from the United States had already expanded into the sugar industry, and their larger sugar mills had driven many Cuban owners into bankruptcy...
...9. Washington Post, March 7, 1990...
...First of all, government aid programs were essential in the early success of Cuban-American businesses...
...government] might be successful if we sit idly by and do nothing...
...Shortly after his election in December 1989, Patricio Aylwin said that normalization would be one of his first acts...
...Washington: Gallup and Johns Hopkins University, 1989...
...Lourdes Arguelles and G. McGoin, "El Miami cubano...
...8 Not only did Castro use television as a tool of governance, he also felt the media were precious resources that must be used to solve the country's mammoth social and economic problems...
...Because their efforts at negotiation were rewarded with U.S...
...Within months after Fidel Castro came to power, clandestine stations calling for the overthrow of the new government began operating from the United States or with U.S...
...To this date, the U.S...
...Fidel Castro placed great importance on electronic media in the creation and consolidation of his regime...
...The first signs came with the appearance of publications such as Nueva Generacidn, and the more politically defined efforts of two magazines, Areito and Joven Cuba...
...Any attempt by the federal government to clear just one AM channel for Cuban use would seriously disrupt the system, undoubtedly would be challenged in the courts, and would be intensely unpopular with large sectors of the political spectrum...
...When the United States announced plans for T.V...
...But 35Cuba I v Aow Cuba 11 STEALING PERESTROIKA EVER SINCE FIDEL CASTRO ABRUPTLY ENDED a press conference during Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to Cuba last year, when reporters questioned his guest about Cuban resistance to perestroika and glasnost, right-wing Cuban-Americans have sought to take advantage of tensions between Havana and Moscow...
...2 7 Unlike the Left, which has been silent on the internal situation on the island, the centrists' criticism of the lack of democracy in Cuba, allows them to do battle with the Right over democracy within the community itself...
...The world was amused...
...Describing the programs of the USIA as "the greatest weapon of all," President Reagan ordered the largest peacetime expansion of U.S...
...And the Foundation's PAC contributions--$182,897 in 1988 alone-undoubtedly helped drive liberal Sens...
...After the military fight against the revolution was abandoned in 1965, the Agency set up businesses to lure Cubans from the battlefield and to pay off loyal allies...
...The corruption they encountered in Cuba required them to hand out still more money, and further antagonized them...
...Pedro Ram6n L6pez, a Miami banker and founder of the moderate El Consejo Cubano, said after the recent attack on Ram6n Cernuda, "At stake for Cuban Miami, is theabsolute freedom of speech, without fear of having to face the firing squad of the Little Havana microphones...
...The cost to taxpayers will be nearly $40 million during the first two years and approximately $15 million annually thereafter...
...Swept along by the civil rights and anti-war movements, a significant number of Cuban-American students on U.S...
...Miami Herald, July 23, 1989...
...2 ' Economists also suggest that family businesses may lure Cubans away from the primary labor market and schooling, contributing to a decline in the community's level of education...
...28, (1980...
...U.S...
...Now it was Cuba who was denying entrance to the island...
...Nevertheless, in the first year after the dialogue, more than 120,000 Cubans visited the island...
...Even centrist groups that have specialized in critizing the lack of democracy in Cuba, like the Social Democratic Party, now view democratizing the Cuban-American community as a top priority...
...In the summer of 1989, a new political action committee, the Cuban-American Coalition, was launched, aimed at lobbying Congress and local officials in support of essentially the same family agenda...
...The economic reality of the CubanAmerican community has more in common with other " minorities" than with the Republicans' traditional base of support...
...Edward G. Lansdale, chief of the operation and the United States' premier psychological warrior, was eager to deploy the airborne television system...
...On the island the same phenomenon occurs...
...At its best, this made dissent all but impossible...
...27-44...
...administration...
...Government officials and the media like to point to Cubans who have "made it" on their own, to defuse demands by African-Americans and other Latinos for affirmative action and other programs to achieve equal opportunity...
...2 4 Despite many Cuban-Americans' professed hatred of the Democrats, because of Kennedy's supposed great betrayal at the Bay of Pigs, most Cuban voters in Dade county in 1980 were registered Democrats...
...Two months later, Radio Swan began operations from Swan Island, a tiny dot in the Caribbean claimed by the United States...
...I The Cuban leader was referring to T.V...
...Although the 1910 U.S...
...7. Carlos Forment, "Caribbean Geopolitics and Foreign State Sponsored Social Movements: The Case of Cuban Exile Militancy, 1959-1979," in Miren Uriarte-Gast6n and Jorge Canas (eds...
...Produced by anti-Castro exile groups in Miami, the broadcasts mixed traditional Cuban music, soap operas, and other entertainment with venomous attacks on the regime...
...Marti Surveys Are Flawed," (GAO/NSIAD-90-252), Aug...
...After two years with the CIA in the early 1960s, Bosch denounced the Agency for abandoning the fight against Fidel Castro, and "declared war" on the governments of Spain, MexContrary to the hopes of the Cuban-American Left, the first family visits in the late 1970s only encouraged a thirst for consumer goods on the island, and further embittered exiles VOLUME XXIV, NUMBER 3 (NOVEMBER 1990) 29Cuba II ico and Great Britain-countries that maintain diplomatic relations with the island.' In 1966, he was convicted of firing a bazooka on a Polish freighter in Miami harbor...
...A spiral of ever-more powerful, unregulated radio and television broadcasts across the Straits of Florida are in the long-term interests of neither side...
...247, No...
...It routinely encouraged North American blacks to burn their cities and commit other violent, subversive acts...
...During last spring's U.S./Soviet summit, Cuban-American exiles tried to add a new episode to this drama...
...A well-developed body of international law grants each country the right and responsibility to decide, free from outside interference, how its electronic media are organized, financed, programmed and regulated...
...WITH THE ADVENT OF THE REAGAN ADministration in 1980, all hopes of better relations evaporated...
...Terrorist actions had not stopped when the United States changed tactics...
...3. Oscar Pino-Santos, El asalto a Cuba por la oligarquia financiera yanqui (La Habana: Casa de las Am6ricas, 1973...
...Unlike them, he believes that the best way to bring about these changes would be to end U.S...
...The community could rid itself of the old obsession which blinds it to its real interests and allies...
...Once the Right realized that people were going to Cuba anyway, they began encouraging travellers to bring back "intelligence" information about life in Cuba and to cause as much damage as they could while on the island-by flushing articles of clothing into hotel toilets, etc...
...This fact belies the common image of Cuban-Americans as uniformly prosperous and reactionary...
...Perhaps most importantly, improved U.S.-Cuban relations would allow the winds of democratic reform to sweep through this side of the Florida Straits...
...Class, generational and regional cleavages have contributed to the heterogeneity of the community and to the diversification of its politics, even in regard to U.S.-Cuba relations...
...Of course, a primary target was Cuba...
...However, their arrival coincided with the ascendancy of the New Right, and their potential to create a political alternative was limited from the start...
...They have had not a few brushes with the law, and anyone considered soft on Castro or hard on Mis is purged...
...4. New York Times, August 13, 1989...
...Marti are the showpieces of the foundation's efforts...
...H OSTILE BROADCASTING HAS LONG BEEN A primary tool of Washington's policy toward the Cuban regime...
...broadcast frequencies...
...Revolutionary cadres were discouraged from maintaining contact with relatives who had emigrated...
...In May, when Gustavo Arcos of the island-based Committee Pro-Human Rights called for a dialogue with the Cuban government, Foundation crony and Bush Administration official Armando Valladares called Arcos a traitor to the cause...
...Many Cuban-Americans began distancing themselves from the new immigrants...
...In spite of this diversity, the Cuban press focused on Rev...
...But Murrow urged caution...
...Many others had worked for the huge colonial bureaucracy and were classified as public accountants and lawyers...
...General Accounting Office, "Broadcasts to Cuba: T.V...
...Los Angeles Times, April 28, 1990...
...And there are cracks among the organized Right...
...If the Cuban leadership concludes that T.V...
...When the Justice Department freed Bosch, it prohibited him from meeting with any member or associate of a long list of organizations, that advocate armed struggle against Castro, including the Coordinaci6n de Organizaciones Revolucionarias Unidas (CORU), Poder Cubano, Acci6n Cubana, Frente Nacional de Liberaci6n de Cuba, Movimiento Nacionalista Cubano, M-17, Omega 7, Alpha 66 and the Brigada 2506...
...broadcasters to lobby the White House and Capitol Hill to reconsider T.V...
...Increasingly, Cubans turned their concerns to life in the United States, and the politics of exile slowly began to be displaced by more immediate struggles...
...6 The CIA plan for covert actions against Cuba which President Eisenhower approved in March 1960 included the establishment of a clandestine radio station...
...television screens is the business of the United States, not Canada, Mexico or Cuba...
...CubanAmerican progressives, who had defined their political agenda by defending their right to travel to Cuba, became further isolated in the community...
...Maria de los Angeles Torres, "Cuba: The Unresolved Problem for Cuban-Americans," paper presented at "Cuba at Thirty," conference held at St...
...Castro likes to tout his revolutionary credentials," said un a riavana sireei: u.z...
...8. Wall Street Journal, Aug...
...The nationwide coordination of print and broadcast media in 1961 to help eliminate illiteracy was one of the revolution's finest moments...
...programming forced on them as an intervention in their internal affairs...
...Seventy-five CubanAmericans attended the first session held on November 20-21, 1978 at the Palace of the Revolution in Havana...
...propaganda activities ever...
...summit last spring, Bush announced to the Latino media that he was willing to entertain proposals from the Cuban-American community for alternative ways of dealing with Cuba...
...Those who did not have relatives in the United States or other countries did not receive the same benefits, and many objected to the uneven distribution this fostered...
...Some claimed that sending the Marielitos was a Castro plot to tarnish the image of the community...
...efforts, Cuban counter-broadcasting has been sporadic, low-powered and financially modest...
...1. Author's interview with Ram6n Cernuda, August 1990...
...Marti offices are a microcosm of the Byzantine politics of the South Florida exile community...
...Marti...
...Shortly after the CIA launched Radio Swan in 1960, Cuba responded with Radio Havana, a shortwave service which, particularly in the early years, broadcast virulent propaganda calling for the overthrow of the U.S...
...Party militants were not even allowed to write to theirs...
...As a whole, Cuban immigrants of this period were the most skilled and professional of all groups entering the United States...
...As the revolutionary government moved leftward and came into increasingly sharp confrontation with the United States, between 1959 and 1962, approximately 215,000 more people left the island.' Today over a million Cubans-10% of Cuba's population-are living in the United States, with major concentrations in Florida, New York, Illinois and California...
...If the U.S...
...It was the militarization of this opposition by the United States and the promotion of hard-line policies on both sides of the Florida Straights that encouraged anti-democratic tendencies within the community and consolidated the power of the most reactionary forces in the Cuban-American community...
...Cuban median income relative to that of whites was highest in 1978, when it was 20% lower...
...the United States refused...
...broadcasters...
...And in 1985, when the Reagan Administration launched Radio Marti, a Voice of America station aimed specifically at Cuba-with the highly visible participation of the right-wing Cuban American National Foundation-the Cuban government ended all travel by the community...
...53-73...
...The Foundation lobbied Congress in favor of Radio and T.V...
...It blew off the front of the building and caused considerable damage to the paintings inside...
...A flow of media between the United States and Cuba is inevitable, they say, given advances in communication technologies and the proximity of the two countries...
...diss., University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, 1986...
...The two sessions held between representatives of the Cuban-American community and the Cuban government came to be known as el didlogo...
...Within days more than 10,000 Cubans jammed the compound...
...3. The complete text of Baker's statement was published in Diario de las Americas, March 30, 1989...
...Annual turnover among the Radio Marti staff is in excess of 25%, and morale among those who remain is low...
...There were not that many Blacks in Cuba," was an oft-heard remark, "These are Angolans...
...In 1974, while out on parole, he fled the country...
...Joven Cuba called on Cubans to become part of the civil rights struggle of the Black and Latino communities...
...Cubans in the United States (Boston: Center for the Study of the Cuban Community, 1984...
...others tried to dissuade their children from travelling to Cuba...
...Exiles call those who stayed behind "chivatos," informers...
...Mariel was devastating for progressive Cuban-Americans...
...Cubans did not flock to Madrid, but rather to New York City, New Orleans, Philadelphia, Key West and Tampa...
...Areito was more concerned with building bridges between CubanAmericans and Cuba...
...They profess to accept that the Communist Party and those in power today will be a significant political factor in the future of Cuba...
...In a sense the Cuban American National Foundation represents an attempt by the Cuban-American Right to conduct its political business "a la americana," while at the same time promoting an exile agenda of overthrowing the island government...
...At least a score of these stations agency in San Juan, Puerto Rico that arranged trips to Cuba for Cubans, when gunmen riddled his car with bullets...
...The independence movement of the 1880s and 1890s was organized primarily in the United States...
...These young Cuban-Americans at first met with hostility...
...The finality of emigration and the official rancor toward the "communities abroad" tended to drive 6migr6s to even more extreme opposition, politicizing and embittering the exile community...
...involvement in Cuban affairs...
...On exhibit were works by Cuban-Americans who had come to the United States during the boatlift from Mariel in 1980...
...Will Miami Fall Next...
...Such a climate would allow the community to develop its politics in a more organic fashion, outside the clutches of national security states...
...On September 14, at the request of the Committee and Marazul travel agency, the Cuban government doubled the number of entry permits to 10,000 yearly...
...The former broadcaster on the CIA's Radio Swan has become the patron of the most conservative faction of the Cuban exile community, and now aspires to replace Fidel Castro as president of Cuba...
...The Cuban government would not feel compelled to treat emigration as treason, but to consider it a natural outgrowth of an engaged and constructive economic relationship...
...In principle, the Cuban position was perfectly reasonable...
...Marti, and his tight-knit group of right-wing exiles exercises great influence over the operation of the stations...
...Foundation member Ileana Ros-Lehtinin became the first Cuban-American elected to Congress in the summer 34 NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 34of 1989, when she won the late Democrat Claude Pepper's seat...
...people...
...Though they received overt and covert aid unprecedented in U.S...
...Agrarian and urban reforms, which redistributed land and resources, angered many people-especially former property-owners...
...Chicago Tribune, April 14, 1989...
...Those who leave Cuba are called "gusanos" (worms) or "traitors...
...Initially, right-wing groups tried to intimidate people by bombing travel agencies that arrapged family visits, threatening to bomb planes, and harassing those who did travel...
...But when he took office in March, he announced that Chile would maintain the existing non-relationship with Cuba...
...Radio and T.V...
...In the first weeks of its formation over 800 people had signed on and donated money...
...2 6 In Washington, the Cuban-American Committee has helped bring moderate and progressive Cuban-American voices from various parts of the country to Capitol Hill...
...With visitors bringing in consumer goods, the black market surged...
...Labor Market, 1940-1988," paper presented at the conference, "Latinos in a Changing Political Economy: International and Regional Perspectives on the New Equality...
...they had the highest percentage of servants, and class division characterized the community from the beginning...
...Opponents of the radicalization of the revolution in the early years were not only ultra-right landowners and businesspeople, but social democrats and Christian democrats...
...The new station, operating on both shortwave and a standard AM broadcasting frequencies, beams 24 hours of programming to Cuba daily, at an annual cost of approximately $12 million...
...For Cuban exiles, life in the United States had not NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS 28turned out to be as glittering as they had expected...
...Opposition can not be built with lies and psychological warfare," Fidel Castro said of T.V...
...asked Carlos Aldana, of the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party and Cuba's point-man on the issue...
...The agreements reached allowed 3,000 political prisoners, former prisoners and members of divided families to emigrate, and permitted Cubans living abroad to visit the island-even many who had participated in military actions against Cuba...
...Further, U.S...
...At least 18 bombs were detonated in 1989 alone...
...36 (April 1981 ), p. 2-41...
...The Cuban-American Right renewed its calls the most grave circumstances...
...Since 1985, the Cuban government has moved very cautiously to reestablish contact with the Cuban-American community...
...More than a radical escalation, it indicates business as usual in U.S...
...The release of prisoners also exacerbated tensions inside Cuba...
...sitcoms ("Kate and Allie"), sporting events, music videos and other seemingly innocuous entertainment, intertwined with the U.S...
...State Department, "Pros and Cons of the 1990 Supplemental Authorization," Communication to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs...
...have broadcast to Cuba over the past three decades, at a cost of hundreds of millions of dollars...
...Wall Street Journal, Aug...
...Rumors spread that the Marielitos were not really Cubans...
...Like the Camarioca incident in 1965, Cuban-Americans sailed from Miami to pick up relatives...
...From 1887 to 1907, most of Cuba's sugar and tobacco was sold to the United States...
...VEN THOUGH 1965 WAS THE YEAR OF THE dramatic exodus of thousands of Cubans through the port of Camarioca, by then it was fairly clear that the Cuban Revolution was around to stay...
...I Scores, perhaps hundreds, of U.S...
...After 30 years of socialism, these newer arrivals tended to be politically more heterogeneous and liberal than the immigrants of the 1960s, and-perhaps because their memories of the drop the demand in exchange fora U.S...
...Instead, the gunmen and bombers turned their wrath against members of the community who dared speak out against them...
...Foundation's success is due in no small part to the red-carpet treatment it received from the Republican New Right...
...broadcast system...
...In the years following the establishment of the Cuban Republic (1901), Cuban-Americans continued to organize opposition movements...
...In many instances the original investment capital came from the Central Intelligence Agency...
...First, it restricted the number allowed to travel to Cuba per month...
...In whose hands is [T.V...
...radio stations would lose large chunks of their coverage areas to invading Cuban signals...
...In other words, what appears on U.S...
...There was a lull in the bombings in the early 1980's, but by the end of the decade, the FBI named Miami the terrorist capitol of the United States...
...Miami Herald, Sept...
...Jorge Mis Canosa announced to the press that the Soviet delegation would be meeting with him because the leadership of the Soviet Union did not want to be caught off guard not knowing the next leaders of Cuba as they had been in Eastern Europe...
...Marti is, in essence, an electronic version of the Platt Amendment, which Cuba was forced to incorporate into its constitution in 1901 as a condition for the withdrawal of U.S...
...20, 1990...
...C UBA, TOO, HAS A HISTORY OF HOSTILE broadcasting to the United States...
...Those calling for an invasion of Cuba expected that the Marielitos would join them in their plans, but they showed little interest...
...A significant number had criminal records, and there were also many homosexuals--as unwelcome among Cuban-Americans in Miami as they had been at home...
...In both cases, family members remaining in Cuba were stigmatized...
...Cuba also suspended the immigration accord which would have allowed 20,000 Cubans to emigrate to the United States each year...
...6. The foreign leader and senator reported Baker's overtures in private interviews and wish to remain anonymous...
...Aid for a full-fledged military expedition was not forthcoming from Congress, and such grandiose plans were abandoned along with overt military roles for Cuban exiles...
...Despite its clout and visibility in Washington, the Foundation has failed to win much support in the community, due in part to the dictatorial style of its president...
...Also at the meeting were former members of the Brigada 2506 that invaded at the Bay of Pigs, whose release from prison had been negotiated by the Kennedy Administration...
...Bill Watts, "The United States and Cuba: Changing Perceptions, New Policies...
...Marti earlier this year...
...Many families disowned their sons and daughters...
...Soon, government officials began meeting with representatives of the exile community...
...The administration ended up dispensing apologies to Arcos and his U.S...
...In the early 1960s, many thought they would soon return home, but once the internal military opposition to the revolution was defeated, these aspirations faded...
...In fact, Mis Canosa was the only Cuban-American nonacademic to appear with members of the Soviet delegation on the program of a conference at the University of Miami's Center for Eastern European and Soviet Studies...
...efforts to influence domestic Cuban affairs...
...The impact on the community was enormous...
...He has decreed that any dissident project in Cuba, has to be approved by those in exile...
...Cubans listened enthralled...
...9. Peter Wyden, Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979...
...After Batista fell, Castro capitalized on Cuba's relatively well-developed radio and television system to mobilize support for his revolutionary government...
...This prompted an unprecedented meeting of representatives from a wide spectrum of organizations on June 30, in Miami...
...negotiators insisted that the proposed Cuban station comply with the regulations of the Federal Communications Commission and international telecommunications regulations...
...government and its Latin American allies...
...a religious faith which came pouring over the radio waves and through the television screens in the words and presence of Fidel Castro...
...Though also an effort to forge a winning electoral strategy in Florida (a traditionally Democratic state), it became a way of guaranteeing the Republicans a "minority" constituency...
...Hollings claim that President Fidel Castro's angry response is indicative of his fear that U.S...
...government version of Cuban domestic news...
...As one young reporter put it, " Mis acts as if Radio Marti were his ranch...
...politics, than of inherent conservatism among Cuban-Americans...
...Murrow and his aides expressed concern that Cuba could easily jam the T.V...
...24...
...4 Most Cuban immigrants of the late 1800s were tobacco workers...
...2. Lourdes Arguelles, "Cuban Miami: The Roots, Development and Everyday Life of an Emigr6 Enclave in the National Security State," in Contemporary Marxism, No...
...It recently built a massive arsenal of high-powered radio transmitters whose signal could easily be heard throughout the continental United States...
...MAT these should be tempered with an analysis that recognizes the polarized nature of the economic reality of the CubanAmerican community...
...Two former directors of the Cuban American National Foundation, Frank Calz6n and Jos6 Antonio Font, have parted ways with Mis Canosa...
...Wayne Smith, The Closest of Enemies: A Personal and Diplomatic History of the Castro Years (New York: Norton and Co., 1987...
...Despite all the high-minded rhetoric about bringing the truth to the Cuban people, T.V...
...11 (Oct...
...During the 1988 presidential campaign, they organized a breakfast meeting to call for negotiations with the Cuban government on these issues...
...Prior to joining the NSC in 1986, Sorzano was president of the Cuban American National Foundation...
...They say the Cuban government welcomes Western programming and Havana has sought to negotiate exchange agreements with public and commercial television in the United States...
...2 But since the mid-1960s the violence perpetrated by such groups is nearly always directed against other Cuban-Americans who do not support their hardline policies...
...The jobs tend to have low salaries and few benefits apart from the freedom to speak Spanish...
...8. Donna Rich, "Embargo Economics Keeping Cuba at Bay," Multinational Monitor, April 1989...
...In the 1930s, Cubans in New York published newspapers opposing dictator Gerardo Machado and smuggled them into Cuba...
...T.V...
...As early as 1961, a law was passed mandating the Ministry of the Interior to issue exit and re-entry permits to those leaving the country...
...ambiguity of exile...
...Within Cuba, the 1959 revolution undertook a profound restructuring of power and class relations...
...escalation, Cuban officials now believe they must stand fast against T.V...
...and Cuba to create a climate in which to resolve the issues of family reunification, immigration, travel and exchanges...
...Even before the Spanish-CubanAmerican War in 1898, while Cuba was still a colony of Spain, its economy was more closely linked to the United States than to its colonial masters...
...7, 1989...
...Perhaps more disturbing is the Foundation's power to limit democratic expression in the community itself...
...agents...
...Marti, aid to the Nicaraguan Contras, and even aid to Jonas Savimbi's UNITA of Angola...
...A month later, USIA Director Edward R. Murrow reported in a secret memo to President Kennedy that the United States had developed the capability to beam television programs to Cuba from airborne transmitters...
...government could broadcast to the Cuban people, the Cuban government should be able to broadcast to the U.S...
...Like his attackers, Cernuda considers the Cuban state to be totalitarian, and he advocates an end to the one-man rule of Fidel Castro...
...The The Cuban American Foundation's Jorge Mas Canosa: a powerbroker who has made anti-Castro politics a litmus test of conservatism parent within USIA...
...VOLUME xxiv, NUMBER 3 (NOVEMBER 1990) 33 33 VOLUME XXIV, NUMBER 3 (NOVEMBER 1990)Cuba 11 MAS CANOSA'S PORK BARREL T V. MARTI IS A CLASSIC POLITICAL PORK BAR- . rel...
...Marti as the litmus test...
...Two years later, he was arrested in Venezuela for planning the 1976 bombing of a Cuban civilian aircraft in which all 73 passengers died, including Cuba's young fencing team...
...Cuba wanted Radio Marti removed from the air as a pre-condition...
...Martin Carnoy, Hugh Daley and Ratil Hinojosa Ojeda, "Latinos in a Changing U.S...
...Finally, in 1987, Cuban negotiators agreed to NACLA REPORT ON THE AMERICAS - -"---for invasion...
...government continues to turn a blind eye to Cuban-American terrorism...
...The participants reached consensus on a statement asking Bush to initiate meetings with the Cuban government to resolve issues important to the community...
...Manuel Espinosa, a Protestant minister from Hialieh, Florida, whose well-attended Sunday morning sermons ended with " iViva Cristo, Aleluya, y fin al bloqueo BROADCAST WARS BY JOHN SPICER NICHOLS F IDEL CASTRO ONCE CALLED IT "AN ELEC- tronic war between David and Goliath...that Biblical character [who] was defeated by his stupidity...
...The exodus was presented to world opinion as evidence that the revolution had failed, and particularly that it had betrayed the middle class.1' For the revolutionary leadership, emigration conveniently moved dissent from Cuba to Miami and other exile centers, and provided an easily identifiable external enemy...
...Despite the lack of an international enforcement mechanism, most countries do comply with these accords...
...Those who applied for permission to leave automatically lost their jobs and other benefits of society...
...While the culture of intolerance continues in the CubanAmerican community, many organizations are challenging its monolithic hold...
...But MAs Canosa's efforts to position himself as the Soviet-approved successor to Fidel were ruined when Alicia Torres, executive director of the liberal Cuban-American Committee managed to enter-despite the physical efforts of a Foundation staff person-and ask Mr...
...Abrams was Assistant Secretary of State for Latin America and Sorzano was a Latin American specialist on the NSC staff...
...signals and might be tempted to retaliate against U.S...
...5. Michael G. Kozak, "Cuba: A Threat to Peace and Security in Our Hemisphere," U.S...
...Juan Almeida, vice-president of the Council of State...
...One poll found that 42% of Cuban-Americans support negotiations with the Cuban government...
...In the 1950s, when Fulgencio Batista was temporarily out of power, he made his base in Miami...
...This simple logic is the basis for the highly technical treaties that govern international telecommunications, which reserve standard radio and television frequencies for domestic use only and confine cross-national broadcasting to shortwave bands...
...1988...
...Many felt that the Cuban government was exploiting their desire to see relatives by charging outrageous prices, which at one point reached $1500 for a one-week trip from Miami, even if the traveller stayed with relatives...
...6 C UBAN-AMERICAN POLITICS, WHILE TRAditionally very diverse, unfold within a political culture that has little tolerance for dissent...
...4 Mufiiz, a 26-yearold father of two, was driving home from his job at a travel aggression...
...The legendary broadcast journalist, whose televised denunciation of Sen...
...In his memo, Murrow counseled the President: "We should not use this equipment to place television in Cuba under other than Relatives reunite in Havana, 1981: Both Havana and Washington have played politics with family visits world that many problems existed, it raised doubts about whether the revolution was as irreversible as they had assumed...
...By any measure, it has been the most concentrated propaganda blitz in hemispheric history...
...supporters, leaving the Foundation isolated...
...Failure to return within the time alloted was considered "definitive abandonment," giving the state the right to confiscate the expatriate's property...
Vol. 24 • November 1990 • No. 3
