When Henry Ford Apologized To the Jews
DINNERSTEIN, LEONARD
Hebrew Union College recently acquired an extraordinary letter signed by Henry Ford, the originator of the Ford Motor Company. Dated June 30, 1927 and addressed to the Jews of the United States, it...
...He wrote a manifesto that 119 dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson and former president Howard Taft, signed...
...When asked, "Where does the concept come from" that the Jews are responsible for most of the wickedness in the world, Griffin began by saying 'There's a book called...
...Albert Lee, in Henry Ford and the Jews, notes that a contemporary in the 1920s, Norman Hapgood, characterized Ford's mind as "that of a child...
...Poor in his masses, he yet controls the world's finances...
...Had I appreciated even the general nature, to say nothing of the details, of these utterances, I would have forbidden their circulation without a moment's hesitation . . . ." He pledged to withdraw all copies of "The International Jew" throughout the United States and in foreign lands as well, and pledged further that "henceforth The Dearborn Independent will be conducted under such auspices that articles reflecting upon the Jews will never again appear in its columns...
...The rest is history: He started the Ford Motor Company in 1903, produced his first Model T auto in 1908 and won worldwide attention in 1914 when he announced that he would pay his workers $5 a day...
...One of them, however, told a newspaper reporter that Ford's people were trying to influence her and the judge declared a mistrial...
...An anti-Semitic thread had been observable in the garment of Populism...
...A Spanish language edition of 1936 and 1937, El Judio Intemacional por Henry Ford, has the automaker's picture on the frontispiece...
...The Peace Ship incident, he would maintain, was the first time he had personal experience of the mischievous links between radicalism and the Jews...
...The auto magnate was ill, Norwegian officials thought he was foolish, and the project was disbanded...
...Broadway producer and song writer, Billy Rose, wrote a ditty called, "Since Henry Ford Apologized to Me," and ended it with a pledge that if the car maker ran for president he would have Rose's support...
...And the greater pity is that a nationally circulated magazine, with the name of one of the most extensively known men of the world at its masthead, should have ever permitted such baseless attacks to have begun...
...In his spare time he tinkered with an engine for an automobile and finally produced one in 1899...
...Not until the court threatened to declare him in contempt did his attorney agree to produce him...
...In later years," biographer Robert Lacey wrote in Ford: The Men and the Machine, "Henry Ford's virulent anti-Semitic campaigns were to make up one of the darker chapters in his life and he would hark back to his ill-starred adventure with the Hungarian Jewess as the beginning of it all...
...The Jew is a mere huckster, a trader who doesn't want to proThe InternationalJew, a series of books containing articles reprinted from The Dearborn Independent, has been published in English by at least three different publishers and translated into more than a dozen languages...
...Ford should have made...
...Ford found the Jew a suitable villain...
...A Bum Rap: Ford's International Jew Gets New Life "Farrakhan's a prophet and I think you ought to listen to What he can say to you What you ought to do...
...That was the end of Sapiro's suit...
...A consultant, J. J. O'Neill, was called in for advice about how to spruce up the journal and he recommended a strong and forceful series on a major topic...
...Ford's secret investigators tried to find damaging evidence about Sapiro but they came up with nothing...
...These mailorder companies, which do not publish their telephone numbers, also offer an assortment of anti-black, anti-Zionist isolationist and anti-immigration publications, as well as revisionist histories that say the Holocaust never happened...
...The beginning of the end of the Ford diatribes occurred in 1924, when Aaron Sapiro, a Jew who had been promoting farmer cooperatives, was attacked in The Dearborn Independent...
...Sapiro demanded a formal apology and when that was not forthcoming, he brought suit against both Ford and The Dearborn Independent...
...We study...
...He attributed his defeat, biographer Keith Sward tells us in The Legend of Henry Ford, to the nefarious influence of "Wall Street" and an "influential gang of Jews...
...The single description which will include a larger percentage of Jews than members of any other race is this: He is in business...
...He had good guys—mainly himself, his yes men and the Germans—and the villains—Jews, Catholics, smokers and drinkers...
...Norman told the Washington Times, "We're not hung up on Jews...
...But in looking back to Ford's youth there seems to be little doubt that he shared the values of rural America...
...Nevins described it: "In rural communities where the only Jew ever seen was a roving peddler, where Christian and Jew were antithetical terms and where such images as Shylock and Fagin were traditional, parochialism bred strange distortions of view...
...Shortly before his death in 1947, a reporter asked him if the Ford Motor Company might go public...
...JEWISH EXPLOITATION OF FARMERS' ORGANIZATION" blared the headline...
...And New York's Reform leader, Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, responded: It is the special shame of Christendom in America to-day that the tissue of lies and forgeries known as the "Protocols," or the "Jewish Peril," is being given circulation by a confessedly nearly illiterate multimillionaire, who has taken upon himself the onus of filing the gravest charges that have ever been uttered against Jews in this or any land...
...It may be only gathering rags and selling them, but he is in business...
...Senator from Michigan and lost...
...Professor Griff (Richard Griffin), the spokesman for a popular rap music group called Public Enemy, rapped on Jews as responsible for "the majority of wickedness that goes on across the globe...
...Dated June 30, 1927 and addressed to the Jews of the United States, it states in part: For some time past I have given consideration to the series of articles concerning Jews which since 1920 have appeared in The Dearborn Independent...
...I deem it to be my duty as an honorable man to make amends for the wrong done to the Jews as fellow-men and brothers, by asking their forgiveness for the harm that I have unintentionally committed, by retracting so far as lies within my power the offensive charges laid at their door WHEN HENRY FORD APOLOGIZED JEWS LEONARD DINNERSTEIN by these publications, and by giving them the unqualified assurance that henceforth they may look to me for friendship and goodwill...
...Trusted friends with whom I have conferred recently, have assured me in all sincerity that in their opinion the character of the charges and insinuations made against the Jews, both individually and collectively, contained in many of the articles which have been circulated periodically in The Dearborn Independent and have been reprinted in the pamphlets mentioned, justifies the righteous indignation entertained by Jews everywhere toward me because of the mental anguish occasioned by the unprovoked reflections made upon them...
...The Jewish Revolution in Russian was manned from New York . . . ." The August 6, 1921, issue of The Dearborn Independent proclaimed: "JEWISH JAZZ—MORON MUSIC—BECOMES OUR NATIONAL MUSIC...
...8...
...He claimed that he was only trying to awake the Gentile world to an understanding of what is going on...
...He attributed the cause of World War I to international Jewish bankers who prodded the Germans to begin the conflagration...
...The night before Ford's scheduled appearance in court, he had an automobile "accident" and was hospitalized...
...Louis Marshall, president of the American Jewish Committee, then the leading Jewish defense organization in America, called Ford's attacks ' 'the most serious episode in the history of American Jewry...
...The document alleged that the Jews were engaged in a secret plot to overthrow Christian governments throughout the world and planned to take control themselves...
...Lyrics from the song "Bring the Noise" by Public Enemy Henry Ford's anti-Semitic theme song plays on...
...In America alone," the newspaper continued: most of big business, the trusts and the banks, the natural resources and the chief agricultural products, especially tobacco, cotton and sugar, are in the control of Jewish financiers or their agents...
...The International Jew also is offered today through the mail by companies in California, West Virginia, Arkansas and Georgia that are thinly veiled cover groups for the Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazis, according to researchers at the ADL and the American Jewish Committee...
...Ford's retraction satisfied Louis Marshall and many other Jews...
...Though it made little impact when originally written, after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 it emerged as a major political weapon...
...Ford's public attacks against the Jews began in The Dearborn Independent on May 22, 1920 when the paper launched a seven-year on-again off-again series on "The International Jew...
...The Richmond Times-Dispatch noted that "in denying knowledge of the anti-Semitic policy of his magazine and in disavowing any understanding of its effect on the Jewish people, [Ford] has set himself up as a target for further ridicule...
...He even referred to J. P. Morgan's gentile banking associates as "Jews...
...the Jews caused the outbreak of thieving and robbery all over the country...
...Behind this letter lay nearly a decade of virulent anti-Semitism by the most powerful American industrialist of the 20th century...
...The case came to trial in the spring of 1927...
...That same year the Mew Tork Daily Mews, the nation's largest daily, had a circulation of only 50,000 more...
...Nor had there ever been such a renowned figure as Henry Ford promoting such slander...
...Senate in 1918...
...We're studious people...
...He therefore decided to end his campaign against the Jews...
...The Atlanta Constitution editorialized: Although manly and courageous, the retraction is no more than Mr...
...duce, but to make something out of what somebody else produces...
...They absolutely control the circulations of publications throughout the country...
...The fact that the Ford Motor Company suffered from stiff competition and lower sales in the mid-19205 may also have contributed to his decision...
...Biographer Allan Nevins in his book Ford attributed the automaker's "spasm of violent anti-Semitism" to "ignorance and misinformation...
...The old man allegedly rose from his sick bed and passionately replied: "I'll take my factory down brick by brick before I'll let any of those Jew speculators get stock in the company...
...Many people were critical of Ford for accepting this token of esteem but he defended his position...
...We've got no time to get hung up on Jewish people...
...The Protocols was published in England in February 1920, in Boston a few weeks later, and its arguments soon appeared in Ford's newspaper, The Dearborn Independent...
...His son Edsel, as well as several friends, had been counseling him for some time to stop his attacks...
...On April 23, 1924, Ford took ofT against him...
...Fewer than any race whose presence among us is noticeable, they receive daily an amount of favorable publicity which would be impossible did they not have the facilities for creating and distributing it themselves...
...His answer, in part, was to identify the two as one and to equate both with the Jews...
...He kept his word on This headline marked the start of the anti-Semitic diatribes in The Dearborn Independent Ford suspended the series in 1922, when he was thinking of running for president With the death of Warren Harding and the popularity of his successor, Calvin Coolidge, Ford decided not to enter the race...
...Ford's sudden rise to fame enhanced his sense of self-importance and he was inclined to interpret his success and its universal acclaim as proof of his unerring judgment...
...At 16 he started an apprenticeship in a Detroit machine shop and later worked in power plants and serviced steam-traction engines...
...To my great regret I have learned that Jews generally, and particularly those of this country, not only resent these publications as promoting anti-Semitism, but regard me as their enemy...
...Let's have some sensationalism," his report urged...
...In the farm areas of Michigan near where he was raised there was a general apprehension and mistrust of Jews...
...This picture is a page from a World War II publication called Friends of Democracy...
...The Bolshevik Revolution had occurred in Russia in 1917 and it gave rise to American fears about subversion in the United States...
...The Dearborn Independent's initial series on the Jews began in May 1920, continued through January 1922, and then intermittently continued until 1927...
...Elements in the American Jewish community reacted with shock and anger...
...Ford's propaganda pieces on the Jews were reprinted in several European countries and were used extensively by the Nazi party in Germany...
...Never before in American history had there been such a blatantly anti-Semitic series published over so long a period of time...
...The first batch of articles ran for 91 consecutive weeks until they were abruptly terminated, without explanation, in January 1922...
...Adolf Hitler hung Ford's picture on his wall, and Ford is the only American that Hitler cited in Nlein Kampf...
...Jews are the largest and most numerous landlords of residence property in the country...
...We're battling to try to regain a black consciousness for our people...
...Sapiro had been helping the farmers increase their income since 1919...
...But Ford also had other reasons to discontinue his vilification of the Jews...
...the Jews caused the inefficiency of the Navy," and so forth...
...The chief of Ford's own private detective service, Harry Bennett, later acknowledged that the auto magnate had told him, ' 'Harry, I wasn't in that car when it went down into the river...
...Unlike Norman, "Professor Griff did not play in the Public Enemy ensemble...
...Despite his denials, there can be no doubt that Henry Ford was responsible for the outrageous slanders...
...Moreover for some inexplicable reason, historian Morton Rosenstock tells us, Ford, who was one of the world's wealthiest men, "felt personally threatened by the power of finance capitalism and by labor unrest...
...Jewish journalists are a large and powerful group here...
...On November 3,1920, The Nation ran a story pointing out that a wave of anti-Semitism was sweeping the world and observed that "the chief responsibility for the revival of this hoary shame among us in America attaches to Henry Ford...
...The newspaper had been purchased in January 1919, with the intention of serving as a vehicle for the expression of the auto magnate's opinions on a variety of subjects...
...Some people questioned the seriousness of his condition and others thought his so-called accident might have been staged, but physicians certified that he was unable to appear in court...
...Thus the circulation of the newspaper rose from 72,000 in 1919, to almost 300,000 in 1922, and to 700,000 in 1924...
...Marshall claimed that the automobile maker's concessions gave him "more happiness than any action in which I have ever been engaged...
...Although both publications are my prop--erty...
...Adolf Hitler used them in writing Mein Kampf and German copies of The International Jew were kept on a table in the anteroom of Hitler's Munich office...
...Ford forced automobile dealers selling his cars to purchase specified numbers of copies of The Dearborn Independent while encouraging friends and customers to take out individual subscriptions...
...Werner Sombart, in his "Jew and Modern Capitalism," says: "If the conditions of America continue to develop along the same lines as in the last generation, if the immigration statistics and the proportion of births among all nationalities remain the same, our imagination may picture the United States of fifty or a hundred years hence as a land inhabited only by Slavs, Negroes and Jews . . ." In subsequent articles Ford accused Jews of trying "to twist Americanism into something else," and of exerting "more power in New York than they have ever exerted during the Christian era in any place, with the exception of the present Russia...
...In 1915 an American Jewish woman of Hungarian descent, Rosika Schwimmer, encouraged him to send a delegation to Europe to help end the war and Ford, inspired by the idea, launched the so-called Peace Ship whose passengers included 83 Americans...
...Thafs not our purpose...
...Griffin was fired after he made this statement and others like it in an interview last year in the Washington Times, which caused a furor in the Jewish community and the record industry...
...Sapiro was person-afly attacked along with Jews generally...
...Public meetings and congressional hearings brought additional evidence of the alleged association of the Jews with Bolsheviks and radicals, and in March 1919, a prominent American periodical, the Literary Digest, expanded on these views in an article entitled "American Jews in the Bolshevik Oligarchy...
...But a few months later, the group announced they were getting back together and rehiring Griffin in a different capacity...
...No one knows, of course, what kinds of questions attorneys would ask witnesses in an open courtroom, but Ford had sufficient reason not to want to subject himself to the kind of humiliation and embarrassment a situation that he did not control might present...
...More than any other race he exhibits a decided aversion to industrial employment, which he balances by an equally decided adaptability to trade...
...The story began: "A band of Jews—bankers, lawyers, moneylenders, advertising agencies, fruit-packers, produce buyers, professional office managers and bookkeeping experts—is on the back of the American farmer...
...In 1919 the Chicago Tribune had called him an "ignorant idealist" and he sued the newspaper for SI million...
...He was the sole owner of the newspaper and personally supervised the development and continuation of the articles on "The International Jew," which were later collected and published in four volumes...
...Ford's Page" and the materials about the Jews...
...Rural Americans, especially, read The Dearborn Independent but no sector of society was totally oblivious to the newspaper's position...
...The International Jew by Henry Ford...
...There are ancient prophecies to the effect that the Jew will return to his own land and from that center rule the world, though not until he has undergone an assault by the united nations of mankind...
...Scattered abroad without country or government, he yet presents a unity of race continuity which no other people has achieved...
...In America, the Protocols reinforced the anti-Jewish stereotype that already stressed the international, conspiratorial, immoral and Mammon-driven Jewish nature...
...The pity is it was not made long ago...
...Ford's propaganda," The Protocols of the Elders of Zi°n> as "an °ld and absurd forgery...
...He began to take positions on issues about which he had little knowledge, and that included the role of the Jew in the world...
...Perhaps the trauma of a previous courtroom appearance remained vivid in his memory and he had no desire to repeat the experience...
...It has therefore inevitably fol-, lowed that the conduct and policies of these publications had to be delegated to men whom I placed in charge of them and upon whom I relied implicitly...
...Born on a farm in Dearbornville, Michigan, on July 30,1863, to parents of mixed Irish, Dutch, Flemish, English and Scottish heritage, Ford's earliest recollections were ' 'that there was too much work on that place...
...his title was "minister of information" and he warmed up audiences with black nationalist statements...
...They are supreme in the theatrical world...
...The first article informed readers that The Jew is the world's enigma...
...Louis Marshall and members of other Jewish organizations had been prepared to urge the Federal Council to take some action, but the Federal Council, representing the major Protestant denominations, needed no outside prodding...
...Living under legal disabilities in almost every land, he has become the power behind many a throne...
...in the multitude of my activities it has been impossible for me to devote personal attention to their management or to keep informed as to their contents...
...Reasoning was just so much talk to a man who lived only by hunches and feelings...
...Another difficult episode in Ford's life occurred in 1918, when he ran as a Democrat for U.S...
...It is impossible to know exactly why Ford decided to avoid a court appearance but a number of factors have been suggested...
...Jews had allegedly encouraged the Germans to start World War I, had undermined the efforts of Ford's Peace Ship, or so he believed, and had supposedly caused his defeat when he ran for the U.S...
...The Gentile boy works his way up, taking employment in the productive or technical departments, but the Jewish boy prefers to begin as messenger, salesman or clerk—anything—so long as it is connected with the commercial side of the business...
...The document, published in January 1921, without mentioning Ford or The Dearborn Independent noted with profound regret and disapproval the appearance in this country of what is apparently an organized campaign of anti-Semitism . . . We protest against this organized campaign of prejudice and hatred not only because of its manifest injustice to those against whom it is directed, but also, especially, because we are convinced that it is wholly incompatible with loyal and intelligent American citizenship...
...Thus, the publication of The Protocols triggered his own imagination as he set out to tell the nation about the Jews among us...
...Public Enemy decided to disband temporarily soon after this uproar...
...Process servers were unable to find him to serve a subpoena...
...Ford also said in his letter that he had examined the materials on the Jews carefully, was "mortified" by their content, and ordered their discontinuance immediately...
...The International Jew, written by Ford in the 1920s, is still sold today through some black bookstores and some bookstores associated with the Nation of Islam, among other places...
...How many individuals actually endorsed the ideas presented cannot be measured, but Albert Lee, author of Henry Ford and the Jews, has written: One has only to read through the letters of encouragement in the Ford Archives—letters from otherwise compassionate people condemning the Jews, letters from numerous Christian ministers praising the anti-Semitic attacks* and enclosing money for copies of The International Jew, letters from college professor and illiterate alike—to be impressed by how easily people would believe Ford about ethnic hatred and politics, simply because he made a car that pleased them...
...My acceptance of a medal from the German people," he stated, ' 'does not, as some people seem to think, involve any sympathy on my part with Nazism...
...A militant pacifist, Ford had delusions of grandeur and thought that single-handedly he could use his influence to end the war...
...Thereafter, Ford downright ran off at the mouth about Jews...
...He said Henry Ford's anti-Semitic treatise The International Jew was a source of his view...
...Major newspapers mocked Ford's scheme^ distinguished Americans refused his invitation to participate in the effort, and the whole thing collapsed when Ford and the ship reached Norway...
...Though there were no other indications of racial or religious animosity in Ford's pronouncements before 1915, the connection between Jews and banking never quite left him...
...Ford also had a close relationship with a married woman who gave birth to a child in 1923 that might have been his son...
...Historian Morton Rosenstock tells us that Ford "seemed frightened at the unpleasant prospect of appearing on the witness stand if the Sapiro case was retried...
...Since the' going rate in the United States at that time was about 22 cents an hour for laborers, men flocked to the Ford plants in Michigan from all over the world...
...Soon after the Bolshevik Revolution occurred, a forged document, The Protocols of the Elders of ?ion, written by members of the Russian secret police in the late 19th century, was widely circulated...
...With the opening of the trial Ford himself became extremely elusive...
...When asked why a copy of Ford's book was among those stacked on a table at Public Enemy's headquarters, group member James Norman responded, "Don't get hung up on this one book...
...The writer dismissed "the common source of Mr...
...A new trial date was set for the fall but the trial never took place...
...To be sure, some non-Jewish opposition also developed to both the outra-geousness of The Dearborn Independent's series and Ford's crassness...
...Marshall then drafted a letter for Ford to sign, the automobile magnate agreed to the terms, and in June 1927, Ford formally retracted his assertions and publicly apologized to the Jewish people...
...The articles published made little impression and had no national impact while the newspaper languished in oblivion...
...In the May interview with the Washington Times, he made such comments as "The Jews have a grip on America," and The Jews have a tight grip on our brothers in South Africa...
...The anti-Semitic articles in The Dearborn Independent resumed in 1924 and continued until 1927...
...On Ford's 75th birthday, in 1938, Adolf Hitler publicly awarded Ford the highest honor the German government could bestow on a foreigner: the Grand Cross of the German Eagle...
...Now Norman has become Public Enemy's "minister of information" and Griffin has been named "Supreme Allied Chief of Community Relations," with duties including "sen/ice to the black community with special attention paid to local youth programs," according to a press release, which added that Griffin will no longer give interviews...
...On a camping trip with friends Thomas Edison, Harvey Firestone and John Burroughs (a prominent naturalist) Burroughs recorded in his diary of the trip that "Mr...
...Large numbers of department stores are held by Jewish firms," says the Jewish Encyclopedia, and many if not most of them are run under Gentile names...
...In the last years of his life, while not publicly proclaiming his anti-Semitic feelings, Ford joined the isolationist, and somewhat anti-Semitic, America First movement, which wanted to keep the United States out of World War II...
...A nationally known socialist writer, John Spargo, also objected to Ford's outrageous attacks upon the Jews and took it upon himself to organize a group of prominent Christians to protest the blatant bigotry...
...Ford attributes all evil to the Jews or the Jewish capitalists: The Jews caused the war...
...Ford's diatribes coincided with other increased manifestations of hostility toward Jews in the United States...
...As historian Morton Rosenstock has observed: The Protocols . . . supplied a tried and tested scapegoat that could be blamed for the evils of a rapidly changing world beset by war and revolution...
...Some of them have been reprinted in pamphlet form under the title ' 'The International Jew...
...And this just happens to be a book that we've read...
...John Higham, the historian, pointed out in Strangers in the Land that "Jews offered the most concrete symbol of foreign radicalism . . . Stories circulated about the streets of New York to the effect that every Jewish immigrant would become a soldier in the revolutionary army assembling in America...
...Shortly after the appearance of the first essay on "The International Jew," The American Hebrew editorialized, "No American in the whole of our history has perpetrated so shocking an attack, so dastardly a crime, against the Jews as has Henry Ford . . . ." The editors suggested that he be stripped of his citizenship and then taken out and "tarred and feacontumed on page 54 Henry Ford continuedfrom page 27 thered...
...A month earlier, in December 1920, the Federal Council of Churches of Christ had also publicly proclaimed its disapproval of Ford's actions...
...In an interview that the Review of Reviews published in December 1921, Ford tried to give the rationale for the many pieces on ' 'The International Jew...
...Will Rogers allegedly joked that "Ford used to have it in for the Jewish people until he saw them in Chevrolets, and then he said, Boys, I am all wrong.' " After the retrial of the case was set for the fall of 1927, Ford's emissaries contacted various Jews in positions of responsibility and ultimately made a connection with Louis Marshall: Ford was willing to apologize and do whatever was necessary to get himself out of the position of having to take the stand to defend his series on "The International Jew...
...But not everyone was critical of Ford's series...
...Abraham H. Foxman, national director of the Anti-Defamation League, called Griffin's firing and rehiring a "repugnant charade...
...The negative associations with Jews were so inbred that he used the term "Jew" with abandon...
...In 1920 and 1921, he made almost daily visits to The Dearborn Independents offices where he paid attention only to "Mr...
...The group's members belong to the Nation of Islam, which is headed by noted anti-Semite Louis Farrakhan...
...And like a child he lived in a fanciful world of his own creation...
...He called all the moneylenders of the world 'Jews,' " his sister Margaret would later recall...
...that and closed down the newspaper at the end of the year...
...It is difficult for many of us today to think of one of America's greatest industrial magnates as a simpleton but in many regards he was just that...
...From the sale of old clothes to the control of international trade and finance, the Jew is supremely gifted for business...
...Although technically he won the case and was awarded 6 cents in damages, Ford was made to look foolish when he took the witness stand and told attorneys that the American Revolution had occurred in 1812 and labeled traitor Benedict Arnold "a writer...
...According to the 1921 testimony of his private secretary, Ernest Liebold, "The Dearborn Independent is Henry Ford's own paper and he authorizes every statement occurring therein...
...Their purpose was to go to Europe, meet with pacifists from other nations, and together wield their influence to end the war...
...The International Jew was also translated into more than a dozen other languages, including Arabic...
...Due to his wealth and status as folk hero, Henry Ford's sponsorship guaranteed attention...
...As the trial proceeded, Ford's investigators attempted to co-opt some of the jurors...
...More than one observer noted that when Ford spoke harshly of the Jew he referred less to a race or religion than to certain traits for which that term seemed convenient...
...Henry Ford was not brought to this apologizing easily...
Vol. 15 • February 1990 • No. 1
