Beyond Liberalism: Some Proposals For The Sixties
Reagan, Michael
Like other dissenters, I can go along with a number of the specific proposals of the major party platforms (particularly the Democratic document) for meeting the domestic needs of the...
...Using the rule of thumb that housing expenditure should not exceed one-fifth of income, the Conference figured that an income of $6,409 would be required to carry the minimum house—and less than 30 per cent of families had incomes this high...
...Medical care for the aged is indeed, as the American Medical Association charges, but an entering wedge for a larger program...
...These changes would not of themselves usher in a new era of cultural creativity...
...By this I do not mean only or primarily that the most advanced students are given sufficiently challenging experiences, but that culturally underprivileged children are given the supplemental aid by which their natural capacities can be released from the constrictions imposed by educationally inadequate home and neighbhorhood environments...
...That something is of course monolithic commercialism, based on a concept of broadcasting as a service to advertisers: "The public," said another producer of rigged shows, "wasn't paying any admission price to watch these programs...
...a revitalization of the redistributive mechanisms—particularly the Federal income tax—that have largely broken down...
...Just as the commonly presented, and commonly accepted, picture of "average" income is distorted upward, so also is the assumption of continuing redistribution of income from top to bottom...
...Not just hospitalization, and not restricted to the aged, but a system universal in eligibility and coverage as in Britain and the Scandinavian countries...
...The advertiser pays (though of course we pay the advertiser in inflated prices), therefore the advertiser calls the tune...
...These rest in turn upon the openness of the marketplace of ideas...
...But what the texts ignore is the gradual, and I suspect increasing, development of a counter-trend of vulgar Madisonianism...
...If 7 out of 10 families can't buy new houses, let them buy those older houses that "trickle down," we are told...
...The trouble is that it is only an entering wedge when we should have the whole program...
...Even if there were more of it, private housing is far too expensive for those in greatest need...
...Through its charitable contributions deduction, again the corporations are attempting to exercise a trusteeship over education and cultural development...
...A partial remedy has been prescribed by Walter Lippman: The economic organization of the television industry is in conflict with the intent of the law, which is to use this valuable and essential monopoly for the public benefit . . . we shall be compelled, it seems to me, to establish alongside commercial television . . . another network founded on the principle of public benefit and moved by non-commercial motives...
...do call for some insulation from partisanship, but this can be provided within the administrative process at least as well as by the . present system of independence from the Presidency with a consequent dependence upon the regulated industries and the good-will of Rep...
...Just as no community can afford, ethically or practically, to give a second rate education to the children of its less affluent families, so the nation cannot afford the waste of talent and the human frustration caused by our failure to use national wealth to bring the educational systems of the poorer states up to the level of the best now known— and then to improve the best...
...The consequences of poverty include above average sickness, both physical and mental...
...But democracy is more than a procedure for discussion and voting...
...Because such a balance does not exist, the forces of property and industrial power have made full use of the system's openness to organized group demands...
...Though business has long had disproportionate weight in the legislative process, corporations such as General Electric, Ford Motor and Gulf Oil have now taken the plunge into electoral persuasion as well—with all of us subsidizing the effort to the extent that corporate expenditures are considered tax-deductible...
...And it is here that the most dangerous accretion of corporate power has been developing...
...We began in 1789 with a constitutional structure explicitly designed to throw obstacles in the way of majority rule (See Madison's Federalist Papers No...
...Only as the organizations of people are given the support of public policy will they be effective counter weights to the organizations of capital that threaten to re-combine political and economic power in a new elite...
...The sit-in movement—spontaneous in origin and with widespread personal involvement—points the way to effective political action as well...
...The result of these anti-majoritarian accretions to an anti-majoritarian Constitution is a system celebrated in contemporary political science as "pluralism": public policy will be determined by the free interplay of opposing groups, slowly, without leadership, without planned objectives, without stepping on anybody's toes...
...When the producer of a quiz show can defend rigging, deception and lies by pleading the "terror and panic that besieged us," something is wrong with the system...
...Distribution of Income and Wealth On April 15, 1960, the Wall Street Journal carried a story on the newly released income distribution figures for 1959, reporting that average family income had risen 4% to $6,520...
...Examples include ideas such as Calhoun's "concurrent majorities" doctrine, which in its modern form means that action is taken only when almost every organized group is willing to accept a program, and the attitude that a party split between President and Congress is a good thing because it provides a further check on power...
...When federal funds of all kinds are withheld from segregated projects and from institutions and communities permitting segregation, the hard choice will be made for integration...
...Liberals have let integration go by the board when it interfered with other goals in housing, education, etc...
...The public housing program's size might well be measured by the gap between needed housing and the private rate of construction: about 700,000 units per year...
...Even the unions, as Marquart says, do not challenge the system...
...As with families, so with the states: those who have the least need the most...
...The best answer is that it manifestly does not...
...below average—even below minimum—housing...
...The best immediate way to diminish this push of the economically dominant institution into other areas of life appears to be to pull the corporation back to its goods-producing function by ending the tax-deductibility of political and cultural expenditures, and perhaps writing federal charters for the largest 500 firms, restricting them to economic functions...
...that the tax system does little to dent the pre-tax disparities in income...
...Oren Harris...
...But it also calls for internal union democracy...
...In 1959 housing starts were 1.3 million...
...And all of this manipulating of the climate of opinion is done in the name of the corporate "conscience...
...Educational equality of opportunity includes specifically the problem of creating motivation that will break the pattern of apathy and despair, and make capable children of educationally apathetic parents aware of higher education possibilities...
...A dissenter's program of political reform, therefore, must have as its twin objectives the removal of Madisonian and pseudo-Madisonian obstacles to action, and the strengthening of the party-electoral process...
...and that the distribution of personally held wealth (as distinct from current income) remains almost as unequal now as in 1922, and the inequality has been increasing since 1949...
...And it seems to me that it would be worthwhile also to impose separation of advertising from programming (the "magazine concept") upon the commercial networks...
...The regulatory commissions need abler appointees and a code of ethics, but they need something more drastic: They need to be abolished...
...But while Beard sees universal suffrage as embodying an impossible dream of political equality, Strachey sees one man-one vote as an essential and partially successful force for countervailing the push of monopoly capitalism toward everincreasing inequality...
...and 700,000 to make some dent in the backlog of substandard units...
...The major party platforms recognize the need, but fail to establish priorities for public sector programs...
...For example, establishing full Presidential authority over the agencies of economic regulation would increase the degree of electoral control because of all the parts of our national system, it is the Presidency that can come closest to expressing the sentiment of a national majority...
...Our need is more accurately characterized as the creation rather than the maintenance of democracy...
...As Daniel Bell has suggested, political action by labor can do more, and more equitably, than collective bargaining to raise sub-standard wages and assure full employment and full purchasing power by affecting fiscal and monetary policies...
...We manipulate the credit supply so that the consumer, the home-buyer, the small businessman, and school construction bear the burden while the large corporation continues to spend whatever it likes through internal financing...
...The overall picture for 1959 is that 7.5 million families and unattached individuals had incomes below $2,000, their collective share of income being 2...
...Despite the mandate of the Employment Act of 1946, we continue to suffer from inflation and unemployment—which we now ingeniously manage to bring about simultaneously...
...Integration The Negro, the Puerto Rican, the 1\'Iexican, are all discriminated against in their political, economic and social rights...
...But politics is as much a matter of social as of governmental struc ture: it is as much a matter of building a social movement as of revised political mechanics...
...Because the inflation-recession cycle continues to plague the economy, and attempts at stabilization have frequently suffered from split authority (President-Congress-Federal Reserve) over monetary and fiscal control, we need to do with tax, spending and monetary policy what we have done with tariff policy since 1934: put the initial power of decision in the hands of the President, and give the veto power to Congress, thus reversing existing arrangements in order to secure prompt and coherent action...
...Behind this authoritarian system, and despite all the "human-relationsinindustry" literature, lies the assumption that the worker is but a "factor of production...
...simultaneous election every four years of the President, House and half the Senate...
...An anti-action, weak-government structure inevitably hurts the "have-nots," for their welfare requires change while that of the "haves" generally requires only that the status quo remain undisturbed...
...10 and 51) and then, as all texts in American government point out, we modified this system in the direction of greater democracy by the development of national political parties, the direct election of senators, and the abolition of the property qualification to voting, and the development of a de facto system for direct election of the President...
...The party reform proposals of Stephen K. Bailey and James M. Burns provide the needed outlook and program: massbased national party financing...
...revision of the seniority system...
...Our system of business regulation is in need of complete overhaul— not only because of bribery, lying, inefficiency and stupidity in the regulatory commissions, but because we are regulating what could be controlled by the market (e.g., much of the transportation industry) while not regulating the more significant power of the non-utility industrial giants and not doing the important job of policy formulation...
...and a focus on the Presidential candidate as the policy leader for the whole party...
...The answer to these questions, as well as to that of realizing the cultural potential of broadcasting media, lies in the creation of noncommercial institutions, and the imposition of clearer public responsibilities upon the commercial media (whose continued existence must be assumed in this country...
...Without party discipline and relative homogeneity, with an emphasis instead upon undisciplined narrow-interest groups, there is no way for a national majority of voters to hold their representatives to the program upon which they have been elected...
...If this means no federal aid to education, then so be it...
...The two-class system in education must go: not all children can reach the same level of understanding in philosophy, art, science and literature, but all deserve to partake of their common cultural heritage so far as their capacities permit...
...A first step in this direction would be the passage of the Clark-Reuss bill, which calls for public hearings on price increases that might cause inflation, and for the setting of precise goals for employment, productivity and growth in the President's Economic Report...
...But the stronger government I want to see must also be a more accountable government, and a second significant by-product of this spurious pluralism is its destruction of governmental accountability to the electorate...
...and, in the lowest fifth, permanent conditions of squalor, ignorance, and total lack of opportunity for the children of such families to break the vicious circle...
...The trickle-down theory, however, unfortunately requires a surplus of houses at each price level in order to operate—and there has been no surplus in the post-war years...
...The most obvious needs are to improve existing schools and build new ones, so that a third of a million students can receive full-time education, and to raise the quality of teaching by the simple device of paying salaries adequate to compete with commercial occupations in the recruitment of well-trained, liberally-educated graduates...
...The third focus of a social balance program should be on health— the creation of a national health service...
...We need to make it public so the planners will be accountable to the electorate, and the planning will serve public ends...
...Conversely, the retention of the 271,4% depletion allowance for the oil industry and the failure of federal wage, hour and child labor legislation to protect the retail clerk, the cannery worker, or the migratory family illustrate the strength of minority and property-oriented elements in our political system...
...The facts are, however, that redistribution has been a top-to-middle phenomenon...
...Paul Johnson's words, although written with Britain in mind, are equally applicable here: The function of Socialism is not to improve, but to change society...
...Their quasijudicial functions (rate-setting, allocation of routes or broadcasting channels, e.g...
...As these immediate inadequacies are remedied, more subtle challenges should bring forth additional efforts...
...It therefore has the choice of becoming a party of government, concerned primarily with administering a social structure to which it has become reconciled, or attempting to change the structure...
...The result is a situation familiar to any reader of the metropolitan press: entire families occupying one- and two-room apartments in converted single-family dwellings at rents higher per room than many luxury apartments on Park Avenue...
...The cel ebrated American standard of living—and the non-material quality of life—could be balanced and raised perhaps more by a housing program than by any other single measure...
...repeal of the 22nd Amendment...
...or that the modal income (the most frequent or usual family income) was only $4,600, and this before taxes...
...The discrepancy in dignity between the insecurity of an hourly wage employee subject to sporadic lay-offs and the security of the monthly or yearly salaried employee who is assured full time income is one of the sorest injustices of the industrial economy...
...and the top 5% of income receivers with incomes over $15,000 received 21% of total income...
...The existence of a progressive income tax and the emergence of health care for the aged as a prime issue in a Presidential election year demonstrate the connection between the suffrage and the direction in which public policies are formulated...
...Like other dissenters, I can go along with a number of the specific proposals of the major party platforms (particularly the Democratic document) for meeting the domestic needs of the Sixties...
...One such is the need for "enrichment" programs...
...To understate the matter, it is clear that ours remains a most unaffluent society for at least three-fifths of the families...
...Without structural changes to ward a more majoritarian system, a liberal-radical program will be badly blunted, if not smothered, by the conservative coalition to whom the leaderless process of group pluralism is so supremely suited...
...We regulate railroad rates (when truck and air competition might do the job as well) but leave General Motors free to make investment and price choices that may spell inflation or deflation for the whole economy...
...Supplemental unemployment benefits and guaranteed wage plans should be encouraged, to give additional impetus to the technological forces that are gradually shifting employment from blue- to white-collar status...
...Of all the "independent" regulatory commissions the Federal Reserve is the only one with powers of fundamental importance to the maintenance of full employment, and yet it is the farthest removed from Presidential direction...
...And our children—all children...
...strengthening of party policy committees in Congress...
...Since everything can't be done at once, selection of the crucial areas is necessary...
...We must put integration first, for segregation is the deepest blot on the national conscience...
...not just the "college-prep" contingent—deserve not less than their parents, and should be educated for a lifetime, not just for the first job...
...Their toes do not get stepped on...
...The earlier proposals of this paper—for civil rights, redistribution of income, economic democracy, and social balance programs—will have as an important byproduct the strengthening of popular political capacity—in awareness, skills, wealth...
...Not content with its economic power, the modern corporation is branching out into education, community development and politics...
...The two being interdependent, what helps in one area will help in the other...
...If anything, as W. H. Ferry has argued, those who are not college-bound should receive the greater emphasis in their high school years upon a basic understanding of man and society than those who will have four more years' exposure...
...Education and Health If the social balance is to be redressed, public expenditures must rise...
...The 1958 election and the passage of Landrum-Griffin in the 1959 Congress illustrate the size of the gap between the electoral factor— one man-one vote—and the wealth factor in our politics...
...Housing, education, health—these are not the only areas in which expansion of the public sector can compensate in part for the inequities of class privilege generated in the private sector, but they are all "key" measures because they would provide, collectively, the necessary foundations for individual achievement...
...3. Giving priority to integration when it conflicts with other social goals...
...I assume that industrial democracy must make decisive inroads upon the managerial hierarchy of modern capitalism, that the goal of individual fulfillment today requires a community-provided base of much expanded proportions, and that the optimum human use of our economic resources can only be attained through overhead planning...
...To start with housing, we need much more of it (population growth is expected to exceed 35 million by 1975), much better (the 1950 census classified ten per cent of our housing as unhealthful and unsafe), and much faster (the pace of slum creation appears to outrun the pace of slum clearance...
...The direction of policy in which we must move is clear...
...A set of public expectations as operational standards needs to be worked out (through the party-political process, which has at least the formal equality of one man-one vote) and brought to bear upon economic allocation through a central planning agency under Presidential direction to produce the broad diffusion of ultimate authority which democracy implies...
...Such a network, which could be governed by disinterested citizens and operated by the frustrated and unhappy professions of the existing networks, could become a powerful competitor, and by the competition of its example a powerful regulator, of the existing commercial networks...
...The national median price for a new house in 1958 was reported by the National Housing Conference to be $10,990...
...It is not a merely personal or merely local tragedy that Mississippi spends only $123 per pupil annually while New York can spend $362, and still have its educational budget a lower proportion of state income than Mississippi's...
...in 1960 the pace is slower...
...If vast inequalities in educational expenditure are allowed to continue for lack of significant national aid —and no amount of bootstrap self-help can overcome the hard fact of wide variations in state tax bases—then a heavy price will be paid in corresponding inequalities in chances for individual development and economic opportunity, and in political and cultural alienation...
...Plans involving the filing of suit or the exhaustion of state administrative remedies subject the Negro to coercion and delay, and are too complex for all but the welleducated...
...They are now, by law, largely outside Presidential jurisdiction...
...Thanks to the less direct, but even more pervasive, influence of the corporations upon the "public" media of press and broadcasting, we are bombarded with stereotypes of the nineteenth century put forward as descriptions of the mid-twentieth: "individual enterprise," in a society over ninety per cent wage and salaried: "peoples' capitalism" as a label for a corporate ownership structure in which over ninety per cent of adults have no share and in which, in any case, shareholding bears little relation to control of industrial property...
...but they would provide an institutional basis to encourage rather than stifle free discussion and free art...
...Application of minimum wage, child labor, and unemployment compensation programs to farm workers, plus special requirements for housing and education, are essential first steps toward helping these most disadvantaged of Americans...
...This can help overcome the obstacles to Negro registration in the Deep South...
...Fair employment and housing practices would mean a great increase in freedom and dignity for all minority groups— racial, ethnic and religious...
...Given the middle-class, business-based sponsorship and management of the media, how can the needs and aspirations of the lower-middle and working class majority of the population be articulated...
...The role of public policy is not to impose democracy from above, but to en courage the strengthening of unions so that their bargaining power may produce managerial concessions to worker participation, and to ensure the openness of union processes to internal opposition...
...The "pragmatic" approach, which separates the segregation issue from all other issues, means separating the issue from all the most effective tools of persuasion...
...Why can't the private sector take care of this...
...The starting point of our thinking must be the recognition of a national interest in the quality of schooling received by all children everywhere in the nation...
...As Moses Abramovitz has written, "Whereas only a rise of average income could eliminate the widespread poverty of a century ago, only redistribution of income can alleviate the poverty of relative deprivation...
...Their policy-making and operating functions should be placed in a federal line department under direct Presidential supervision...
...Given the monolithic tone of the large-circulation media when they do enter the world of public policy, and given their entertainment orientation and consequent lack of attention to the real world, how can ideas, facts, proposals pointing the way to an alternative to the cold war-business culture obtain free entry to the arena...
...11.6 million families in the income range of $2,000—$3,999 received 10% of personal income while constituting 21% of the population...
...The National Housing Conference reports that three-bedroom apartments are generally more expensive than ownership, and that in most cities there are few or none to be had...
...Wage employment in a fluctuating economy means that the cost of business downturns falls most heavily on the class least able to bear it, the hourly wage-worker, while the corporation escapes its share of the burden by treating labor as a variable cost rather than as part of overhead...
...Most liberals assume that competitive individualism and private initiative provide an adequate base for community life...
...The Journal did not report that the government statistics also showed that the median income (half the nation earned more, half less) for 1959 was $5,300...
...300,000 for replacement of houses destroyed or otherwise withdrawn from use...
...The Media and the Marketplace of Ideas Our chances of accomplishing any significant changes in institutions depend heavily upon prior changes in attitudes and ideology...
...4. Ending the proletarian-outcast status of farm workers, particularly migrants...
...The conviction that radical change is necessary and possible, it has now been demonstrated, can itself be the spark to ignite a significant social movement...
...In the micro-policy area, the needs are for democratization of the workplace, a guaranteed annual wage, and controls over corporate power...
...While rapid economic growth and full employment must underly our efforts, they are not in themselves sufficient, for the most disadvantaged groups do not gain enough from general raising of the national income to lift them out of the vicious circle of despair and lack of opportunity...
...Housing...
...Industrial Democracy The phrase "industrial democracy" is generally used with reference to relationships within the plant community...
...Since the private housing industry, even with subsidies, has demonstrated its inability to design and construct homes or apartments within the reach of low income families, and since nothing trickles down until already dilapidated, the only solution to the housing disgrace is a vastly increased and improved public housing program...
...The need for democratization, however, is just as great at the level of "macroeconomic" decision making, and both areas are referred to here...
...The new network could be financed—and a nice ironic twist this would be—by a percentage-of-profits charge upon the commercial net works, as John Fischer has suggested...
...Then business men could compete in the marketplace of ideas on the same basis as the rest of us—with their own personal funds and talent...
...What I mean by this is that we have not been content with the separation of power and checks and balances established in the Constitution, but have added to these a host of additional roadblocks which make more difficult the creation of effective government...
...How about apartment rental then...
...We must go beyond liberalism to begin the task of reshaping the social structure so that it will be compatible with the goals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity...
...To my mind, these are housing, education and health...
...We already have planning—private planning...
...The Reconstruction of Democratic Politics Political commentators as diverse in viewpoint as Charles A. Beard and John Strachey have been united in seeing the problem of democratic politics as the problem of concentrated economic power versus the diffused power of numbers...
...The result is that we are, as Robert Heilbroner states, "in the unpleasant position of watching our society change under the impact of its own technology while we stand impotently by to suffer the consequences for better or worse...
...With an end to independence, and the policy guidance of a National Resources Planning Authority, business regulation could perhaps begin to operate in the public interest...
...Part of the pattern also are the establishment of autonomous agencies outside the sphere of Presidential control, the excessive judicialization of the administrative process, the seniority system of Congressional chairmanships, the irresponsible power of the House Rules Committee, and the denigration of party discipline and responsibility in the name of "independence...
...But to achieve its full value, a public housing program must create participative, varied communities, not the urban "poor-houses" of earlier programs...
...American liberalism is a straddle between democracy and plutocracy: it assumes that a society of political and social equality can be erected upon an economic base of flagrant inequality...
...To leave economic performance to "the market" is, in the modern, concentrated economy, to leave it to the interplay of powerful, hierarchically organized interest groups—and to the corporateDefense Department elite of the cold war economy...
...One defect in such a system is that, to operate equitably, it must assume a balance of power among groups...
...Specifically, dissenters should propose: 1. Permanent federal registration of voters for all elections...
...So long as the determination of policy in Congress is free of party control, so long will we have an irresponsible government reflecting the will of economic power blocs rather than the will of the majority...
...Having consented to operate within the framework of nineteenth-century society, Labour now finds that it has accomplished most of the tasks which this limitation allows...
...In the impending age of increased leisure, the quality of life can be improved by the development of adult education programs...
...To rely upon state action is to leave the problem untouched in exactly those states and communities where it is most serious...
...Only a strong national party of industrial and farm labor, Negroes, and the liberal segment of the middle class can provide the power base for the "Coming Political Breakthrough" that Bowles and Schlesinger have been predicting...
...We need to escape the vocational confines of existing programs to provide openings into the world of liberal culture for adults who, in their maturity, regret their failure to explore the liberal and fine arts in their formal education...
...If it did not, after a reasonable trial period, then the straddle of regulation— which leaves initiative in private hands and the public without a positive policy—should be abandoned in favor of de-regulation of what can be left to market control, and public ownership of the remainder...
...The NAACP's judicial politics also need to be followed up by Negro participation in other arenas of social change...
...To give concreteness to these differences in assumptions, I submit a group of proposals—illustrative and tentative rather than exhaustive and firm—that might stir further discussion toward a platform for a dissenters' political movement...
...This would be somewhat of a change from the declining rate of public housing starts in recent years: 134,000 in 1946, 64,000 in 1953, and 10,515 in 19571 A second crucial area is the educational system...
...A national housing goal of 2 million units per year has been widely suggested, of which one million would be for population growth...
...Average construction of new housing units per year is closer to one million than to two...
...Frank Marquart has written of the "sole prerogative" principle, by which management alone determines what is to be produced, how it is to be produced, how much is to be produced, what plants are to be built and where, how much capital is to be invested, what kinds of machinery are to be installed, when workers are to be hired and when they are to be laid off, and how production operations are to be rationalized...
...The median and modal incomes, however, are much the more meaningful figures in providing a picture of the degree of general well-being, and $4,600 presents a slightly different picture from $6,520...
...2. National FEPC and Fair Housing Practices legislation...
...And these expenditures must be largely federal, for only the national government has the tax capacity to do the job...
...Because these families are excluded from most protective legislation (though they need it most) and are largely unorganized (though an Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee of the AFL-CIO is at last making an attempt), they are in a position as bad as that of textile workers in the early 1800's...
...We have done little to assure integrated planning toward the goals of maximum employment, production and purchasing power, and nothing to relate the composition of production to the priorities of human need...
...It asserts that the formal political equality of one man—one vote is in itself sufficient to ensure the responsiveness of public policy to the needs and demands of the majority, ignoring both the direct political power of wealth and the barriers to social and cultural equality that it inexorably creates...
...In time, control over private investment, both its rate and its areas of application, would be needed also...
...One experiment in a New York City junior high, in which slum-area children were exposed to museums, natural scenery and other taken-for-granted experiences of middle-class children—and, perhaps most important of all, received attention that assumed they were worth helping—has already shown dramatically favorable results...
...Restructuring of the corporate world requires breaking through the sole prerogative principle to a recognition of the social character of the work process, of the legitimacy of the worker's claim to a voice in the decisions that affect his life more intimately than those of political government...
...in fact, they further it by the leadership's disapproval of internal opposition and critical discussion...
...it is a way of life, the way of sufficient equality of condition so that, as G. D. H. Cole said, "no one is so much richer or poorer than his neighbors as to be unable to mix with them on equal terms...
...But socialists and radicals, it seems to me, must challenge liberalism's assumption that ameliorative measures are enough...
...And so on, and so on, and so on...
...While there is general sentiment for the breaking down of the most egregious barriers to treatment of members of minority groups as individuals, an effective program must go beyond what many liberals are prepared to advocate...
...It is time to back up the Employment Act with an effective planning process, while also enlarging the scope of national economic goals to include substantive targets for income distribution and public sector goods and services...
Vol. 7 • September 1960 • No. 4
