The damnation of Dr. Atomic
Cohen, Mitchell
Can an anti-war opera be reactionary? This question crossed my mind as I watched the recent production of John Adams's Doctor Atomic at New York's Metropolitan Opera. "Reactionary" usually...
...Response to Doctor Atomic talked much of staging, but critical interrogation of its content was meager...
...Is it only the number of corpses...
...Nature stalls atom-splitting while Indians rain-dance...
...General Leslie Groves was military chief at Los Alamos...
...Who should have decided to deploy the bomb is one question...
...whether or not the decision was right is another...
...Adams credits Pamela Rosenberg, then incoming head of the San Francisco Opera for the idea of Doctor Atomic...
...An opera about the political consequences of nuclear fission by ostensibly leftleaning artists fuses, if not confuses, politics and metaphysics...
...Do you object...
...we have scientific bomb-makers watching Arabs killed (by Gary Cooper, hero of American Westerns), and Native Americans, subdued historically by American-Americans, doing menial labor...
...Its genres are varied, and his styles are usually called "minimalist" or "post-minimalist...
...He reset Mozart's Cosi fan Tutti, Marriage of Figaro, and Don Giovanni in, respectively, a diner, the Trump Tower, and an urban ghetto...
...But unless you are a bad reader of Rousseau, you can look back in utter dismay at what happened at Hiroshima and in disgust at what was done to Native Americans—and you can also be a strong environmentalist and worry about nuclear power—without succumbing to this romanticism...
...That is indeed very possible...
...The U.S...
...To whom...
...Grasp them too tightly and you might think like a reactionary...
...And that Vietnam is not far from Los Alamos...
...Adams explains how two "vastly different cosmologies" were present, that of "native Indians" and that of "interloping...physicists and their military minders...
...Nixon in China comes close to doing it right...
...Still, if you read Margaret MacMillan's Nixon and Mao (2006), the first full-length account of Nixon's trip based on scholarly and primary sources, most of them unavailable to Goodman, you will see how well this librettist "got it," or much of it, and says something about it...
...These are booby-trapped wonders and in the end the erudite doctor will help to bring about the execution of Marguerite, his love...
...But Stalin would have entered the Pacific war no matter what, as Tsuyoshi Hasegawa's remarkable study, Racing the Enemy (2005), shows...
...Sellars opens with films of bombs falling, war wounded, bomb-makers, and devastation, just in case viewers don't know that the war hurt...
...This is the sense in which Doctor Atomic is reactionary...
...He goes insane in 1930, on the eve of Germany's madness, while playing "Lamentation of Dr...
...It is somewhat daunting to try this with Damnation...
...To identify it with all other cosmologies in which there is up and down (or, for that matter, in which up and down merge), including those of Native Americans, would be both simple-minded and unedifying...
...Media frenzies, he complains, mar our grasp of "the actual history of our times...
...DR...
...Moreover, if you can "understand" the murder of a crippled innocent for "contextual" reasons, why can't you "understand" Hiroshima...
...It had been placed between a "Chorus of Palestinian Exiles" and a "Chorus of Jewish Exiles...
...Their capital grew by ascribing all woes to that decade's rebellions...
...He responded so strongly to this symphonic interlude that he declared aloud, "He cares...
...As the scientists were busy making a weapon to destroy the atom, the basic building block of the universe, the Tewa were dancing to keep everything in its place...
...There was a choice," she adds, querying, "Do the ends justify the means when it is our side doing the choosing...
...Atomic bombing of civilians is something else...
...Pulsating tonality animates it...
...Early renditions of the Faust myth send its devil-consorting protagonist to hot climes while Goethe's Faust is saved despite losing his wager with Mephistopheles...
...All this suggests that the American president, worried about the spoils Stalin sought, then rushed off to drop the bomb...
...By "splitting the atom and unleashing its immense energies, human manipulation of natural forces was finally at the point of destroying nature's equipoise...
...Truman knew, thanks to code-breakers, that Tokyo had requested Soviet intercession to end the fighting, but he also knew that the Japanese government was deeply divided...
...Truman may not have been "the best," but he was the legitimate head of a representative democracy at war...
...It was intended to allow the lovers to meet, but it is a Mephistophelian set up...
...Washington, he said, did not want "the extermination or enslavement of the Japanese people...
...She imagined an "American Faust" in Oppie...
...They offered an alternative cosmology—the 1950s...
...It takes place in the political world...
...It is Beau Geste, in which French Legionnaires fight North African Bedouins...
...Storms complicated the timing of Trinity's test, and Doctor Atomic suggests a lesson in cosmology...
...Lepage also provides a striking setting of the first meeting of Faust and Mephistopheles...
...This attitude comes of cosmology in which everything is naturally up or down...
...It is a mental maneuver comparable to what reactionaries do when they imagine a lost, wholesome, ordered time...
...But Stalin told the United States in 1943 that he would join the Pacific war...
...Two shared Alice Goodman as librettist...
...Woolcock wonders if an end justifies the means...
...Adams and Sellars tell us they present myth, indeed the great American myth of the twentieth century...
...Berlioz's Faust is damned ostensibly for not looking to a next moment, but it is really because he loves...
...Berlioz departs from Goethe when he has Faust, desperate to save Marguerite, sign over his soul...
...This query is especially pertinent because Sellars, his frequent collaborator, is often overtly political and social in his work...
...Woolcock writes that Japan was "suing for peace...
...Citizens, especially in a democracy must make moral and political judgments of leaders, vocally so...
...He was a hard-driving, chocolatemunching military man, the opposite of highstrung, chain-smoking, Oppie...
...But this can also be overdone...
...Gilbert: he looked beneath the surface of things but, stuck there, couldn't see through them...
...If nuclear science developed apart from war and cold war, would it have become the same contentious matter...
...Pasqualita makes intangible "utterances" while scientists and solders are "rational, materialist, verbal...
...American composer Milton Babbitt took this even further using mathematical equations...
...Yes, the Kremlin was America's partner, but its dictator also had murdered his Bolshevik colleagues, signed the Stalin-Hitler pact, prepared to betray his Communist confreres in negotiations with Chinese Nationalists, and repudiated his Neutrality Pact with Japan in April 1945...
...He called for "unconditional surrender" of Japan's military and an end to "the influence of the military leaders who brought Japan to the present brink of disaster...
...But reviews of Damnation focused often more on the innovative visuals than meanings of the Faust myth...
...In fact, Japan's military understood in summer 1944, that it could not win...
...In simplest terms, Schönberg made the twelve notes of the octave equal and composed out of rows ("series") of notes with no single tone organizing them...
...It is true that some 750,000 Palestinian Arabs became refugees during the 1947-1949 conflict, but the main event of May 15, 1948, was the invasion of Israel by armies of the Arab League...
...When he does want a moment to stay and should therefore lose his soul, he is saved anyway...
...Enemies as well as allies have to be second guessed...
...CHOICES it Wrong to drop the bomb?," Woolcock asks...
...You wouldn't know from his libretto that Truman's chief of staff, Admiral William D. Leahy, judged that use of atom bombs implied "an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages...
...He just doesn't understand that a democratic citizenry must have reason to give leaders the benefits of a doubt rather than reasons to doubt everything they do...
...Debates about the Bomb are almost always contentious, but they need not be animated by the sort of intellectual sloppiness that is to be found in historical and moral formulations by Sellars, Adams, and Woolcock...
...It usually begins with the disgruntled Doctor alone in his study, but Lepage places his study in a grid of men at desks (somewhat reminiscent of Doctor Atomic's compartments...
...Sellars believes the United States has "come out as the oppressor against every popular democracy movement" in our times...
...After all, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor while Native Americans never invaded Europe, and Bedouins never seized France...
...Its protagonist, a German composer named Adrian Leverkühn, makes a pact with the devil in order to write great music...
...A Sellars-directed Doctor Atomic for the Netherlands Opera in 2005 is available on DVD (it includes an interview with Sellars...
...Came 1980 and a movie star of yesteryear led a "conservative revolution...
...Although it is different enough from Woolcock's version, the assumptions are much the same...
...In one way or another, he seeks alternatives to the twentieth century's "atonal" avant-garde...
...Perhaps Sellars wants George Marshall and Donald Rumsfeld to rhyme...
...But Doctor Atomic trades Goethe's humanist wisdom for cosmological third worldism, one of the weaker outgrowths of the 1960s...
...This is counterfeit history...
...Was dropping the bomb wrong cosmologically or because its target was (principally) civilian...
...Did you know that Baghdad is in Vietnam...
...Sellars says on the DVD that the end of the Second World War just didn't "feel good" because of the bomb...
...The Met's orchestra played sumptuously under James Levine's direction, beginning with a yearning melody on violins that slides into Faust's voice...
...The uproar pushed Klinghoffer's creators to eliminate a scene that mocked a middle-class Jewish family sputtering about politics in suburban New Jersey...
...Doctor Atomic's creators seem to have had answers in advance of questions...
...There is some incoherent romanticism in this...
...He loved the Beatles's harmonies and found the serial avant-garde an aural "bed of nails...
...Nature and the devil have a complicated relation, as Oppie learned...
...But while he goes down, she goes up...
...This excitable child plunges off a cliff trying to fly...
...Faust and Helen have a son, "Euphorion...
...The creators of Doctor Atomic have discussed their historical assumptions in various interviews...
...Reactionary" usually means backward-looking or backward—doing, but it implies more—a response to ideas or actions or an epoch or a combination of these...
...To suggest that the bomb was dropped only to frighten Stalin, while Washington was oblivious to Japan's desire for peace is to make "context" a near-meaningless term...
...It is not entirely evident why he ends up where he does...
...Adams writes that audience members should "gradually realize that they themselves are the bomb...
...Edward Teller and a chorus of scientists chant a letter by physicist Leo Szilard calling on scientists to speak out since they grasp the larger nuclear danger as most citizens don't...
...It drags at points in the second act, but this has artistic purpose...
...Hollywood," Sellars insists, "was not actually what it was like" during World War II...
...Who was to choose...
...Thomas Mann's novel Doctor Faustus is germane to Adams in an ironic way...
...his character is to tell us something about the human condition...
...Librettos for Adams's operas are ambitious...
...Surely a more considered opera can be written about the bomb...
...Sellars says that Truman came to Potsdam hoping to shock Stalin with news of the bomb...
...It is appealing, prima facie, if you think, as I do, that something was wrong about dropping atom bombs on cities...
...Her richly imagined work for Nixon in China (1987) presents an anticommunist president's journey to Mao's China...
...Still, the score has an array of potent ideas...
...The Orpheus myth has variants...
...When Helen moves to follow him to the underworld, Faust embraces her and she dissolves...
...Stalin...
...I wasn't there—neither was Sellars, who was born in 1957— but I don't think a good feeling ought to close any war, just a sense of relief...
...True, but that's history...
...Gadgetry," mental or physical, can—but doesn't have to—pose hazards...
...His Harmonielehre (1985), a symphonic work, inverts Leverkühn's challenge to Beethoven...
...About what...
...Think of how conservatives exploited some reactions to the 1960s...
...Goethe uses this quest to explore his generation's infatuation with ancient Greek culture...
...Faustus," an "objective" reproach to the "subjective" harmonies of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony...
...At one point, Oppie tells Groves, "you are bearing up/with remarkable fortitude/ only your waistline is suffering...
...Pasqualita, the Tewa maid to Kitty, Oppie's unhappy alcoholic wife, and nanny to their child, sings, "In the north the cloud-flower blossoms...
...They know only to make war, which they don't do very well...
...Toward its beginning the same "Chorus of Palestinian Exiles" sings while Israelis expel Palestinians...
...ATOMIC This is arresting, but does it make us smarter politically...
...The contrast between Nixon and Klinghoffer is so radical, the former remarkably perceptive and the latter so animated by sophistry, that it is easy to conjecture that one of them was an accident...
...Sellars points out that Robert McNamara helped to plan Tokyo's fire-bombing as well as Vietnam's carpet bombing in the 1960s...
...Toward its beginning, a multi-leveled wall of compartments spans the stage...
...Came the 1960s, conservatives—some liberals too—damned "pot smoking draft-dodgers" rather than those who sent soldiers to southeast Asia...
...Berlioz conceived it as "four parts" and Lepage evidently wants visuals to make it in some way more whole...
...Yet the more you delve into this opera, the more it brings to mind Bernard Shaw's characterization of W.S...
...That is hardly objectionable...
...Daikichi Irokawa, a Japanese historian, estimates that 1.5 million Japanese would have been saved had Tokyo opted then to accept defeat...
...Sellars created an ambitious libretto from primary accounts, weaving through them poetry by John Donne, Muriel Rukeyser, and Charles Baudelaire, along with the Hindu epic Bhagavad Gita and Tewa Indian songs...
...But sound pluralism is not the same as sound politics, and that is why a question must be posed about Adams's operas: do they make us more intelligent politically or not...
...Cultures clash as world politics reshuffle...
...California based, his music draws many attractive features from the rebellious spirit of the 1960s...
...Faust is just one of them...
...Adams recounts how as a young composer, he felt "between a rock and a hard place...
...Undoubtedly, he thought of American kids, and yes he came to think too that "the most terrible bomb" might benefit America by forcing Japan's surrender before Moscow moved...
...Faust, for Berlioz as for Goethe, is a frustrated man, hemmed in by a life of learning, covetous of experiences that yield some greater insight...
...He rebelled against contemporary operatic norms in the belief that they had lost artistic purpose in order to entertain bourgeois audiences with spectacle...
...Why did the scientists at Los Alamos and by obvious extension, Truman and his colleagues, do what they did...
...Or does it give us—I borrow Bertolt Brecht's description of Hollywood—a laxative for the soul...
...Adams describes driving through the Sierras while listening to Wagner's "Dawn and Siegfried's Rhine Journey...
...In the finale, Oppie's team watches the Gadget detonate in the desert...
...Elsewhere—present but not on stage—Harry Truman is to arrive in Potsdam to meet Josef Stalin and Winston Churchill...
...Oppie replies that, The nation's fate should be left in the hands of the best men in Washington...
...After meeting Stalin, he wrote to his wife, "I've gotten what I came for—Stalin enters the war August 15 with no strings...I'll say we'll end the war a year sooner now, and think of the kids who won't be killed...
...Doctor Atomic dramatizes significant arguments among Los Alamos scientists about the morality of "The Gadget...
...THE "GADGET" Doctor Atomic is set in June and July 1945 at Los Alamos, New Mexico...
...Adams's aesthetic moves the opposite way, exasperated by composers like Babbitt, who once said his music should be heard like a paper delivered to an academic conference...
...Faust, now in a field, sings of winter turning into spring and the sweetness of being "far from human struggle and the multitude...
...Physicists and soldiers despoil Nature while Native Americans have a healthy relation to it and, it is implied, should be the superego of what might be called the American-Americans...
...He imagines he is riding to her rescue when he is hell-bound...
...The Left and many liberals reacted, rightly so, against conformism, discrimination, a war...
...Call this John's Sierra Journey...
...Three major Adams-Sellars opera projects address contemporary history...
...Later, the lineup sings in person, mug shots over head and above them Tewa Indians...
...On the Transmigration of Souls," commissioned by the New York Philharmonic after September 11, 2001, blends orchestration, pre-recorded city noises, and recitation of names of victims...
...But attacks on Japan cannot be justified until we make clear the terms of peace and give them a chance to surrender...
...What moral difference is there between the two attacks...
...How must knowing the end, if you do, compel the right questions...
...FAUSTIAN CODA As it happens, the Met programmed Hector Berlioz's La Damnation de Faust (1846) not long after Doctor Atomic...
...Opera, he contends, can offer what is missing: "context-rich structure...
...to mistrust him...
...Its purview left out, just for one example, what might happen to an African American who sat in the front of a Birmingham bus...
...Was there any reason for the U.S...
...The opera's creators might have done well to reflect on Faust's allusive pursuit of Helen of Troy...
...But the closer staged events are to the times in which they occurred, and in which the audience lives, the more historical care is needed for a genuine and persuasive fantasy...
...But then he opines that contemporary leaders are just like those in World War II...
...If a Tewa Indian today has a life-threatening illness that is treatable with help from nuclear medicine, would the creators of Doctor Atomic advise against it because of the natural order...
...But it can also mask half-thought ideas...
...Tewa cross the stage...
...He told FDR at Yalta in February 1945 he would do so three months after Hitler's defeat (and was assured then of concessions in Asia...
...Just before, titles tell us it is May 15, 1948, the day after Israel's birth...
...The teasing can be hilariously scalding but also sometimes overdone...
...But homogenizing them is indeed tenable if your starting point is a third worldist (or "postcolonialist") worldview that merges all non-Westerners...
...At the end of Act 1, Oppie stands beneath "The Gadget," which could easily be mistaken for a globe, and sings Donne's words: "Batter my heart, three person'd God...
...All this is true too often...
...firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945 killed many more civilians than did Hiroshima with no manipulation of the atom...
...Lepage is to return to the Met with a new version of Wagner's Ring of the Nibelung...
...Yet something else is going on: the introduction of "new technology" into opera...
...His method is Schönberg-like...
...We see in them IDs of the Manhattan Project team...
...Woolcock writes in the Met program that the Tewa had "a powerful alternative cosmology...
...Anton Webern and Pierre Boulez went beyond this to compose all aspects of a work in "serial" form...
...Subtlety doesn't mark the Met production, either...
...Don't mistake a myth for your historical reality...
...Meanwhile, some physicists, taking a little time off, watch a movie...
...Woolcock's assertion that Japan was simply suing for peace doesn't account for what must happen in political decision-making...
...He was on our side, but no mass killing ever bothered him...
...Adams had misgivings, although when he read Oppie's letters, the physicist seemed to step "out of a Goethe play or novel...
...Shortly afterward, a young physicist, a Quaker named Robert Wilson, argues that, Atomic bombs may well be effective warfare...
...He finally decided it was "pure expressivity" and "making the intensity" of emotions "palpable to the listener" through restless harmonies and "melodic leaps...
...The assumptions are embedded, clearly so, in the opera...
...This is one of the oldest conservative justifications of hierarchies...
...This tribe from New Mexico's environs did menial labor and child care at Los Alamos...
...Oppie and Groves didn't discuss the Gadget at Los Alamos with orchestral accompaniment...
...Now that we are "fragmented" in "post-modernity," projections, interactive technologies, and stage movements can also create more "totalizing" works (and without Wagner's suspect politics...
...She kills her mother with an accidental overdose of sleeping potion provided by Faust...
...It is when Faust gives an "Invocation to Nature," expressing a longing to join his voice to its "sovereign sounds," that the devil shakes his communion with news of her condemnation...
...Polls in August 1945 showed that 85 percent of Americans favored dropping it...
...It combines what might be called operatic reportage and fantasy to capture but also to tease the spirit of historical events...
...Robert Lepage staged it with extensive use of the latest interactive technology...
...Baritone Gerald Finley sang with convincing, worried force while Alan Gilbert conducted the Met's exceptional orchestra...
...It makes the audience wait for Trinity along with those on stage, who stare at it in goggles...
...Wagner meant to create a seamless, totalizing experience, something like what he wanted for the German nation in "atomizing" times...
...Scientists led by J. Robert Oppenheimer—"Oppie"— assemble the "Gadget...
...Schönberg published Harmonielehre, a text on harmony in 1911, and Adams calls his own composition with the same title "a statement of belief in tonality...
...since love led her astray, she is saved...
...We hear a Japanese woman plead for water...
...They have the information We do not possess...
...Fantasy about politics can be credible or counterfeit regardless of adherence to events...
...When Mephistopheles offers "wonders," he consents to accompany him...
...many German cultural figures imagined it as their ancient self...
...Adams says that by the time of Truman's arrival, Stalin had announced "the news" that he would enter the Pacific war...
...Which end of what myth...
...While television and the movies can show us images of Oedipus tearing out his eyes, they don't ask why someone would do this...
...Goodman's libretto is, for example, astonishingly generous to Nixon at Kissinger's expense...
...It becomes a plea for salvation by the physicist who directed the bomb-making, who named its test site "Trinity," and who, afterward, thought of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as "sin...
...The first great opera, Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), comes down to us with two very different endings...
...This comes close to nonsense on stilts (to borrow a phrase...
...Berlioz gives us long passages of beautiful "absolute" music, and Lepage doesn't always let them do their own work...
...Truman arrived in Potsdam seeking to secure a date...
...Using interactive visuals by means of innovative software Lepage seems to aim for a post-modern kind of what Wagner called "Gesamtkunstwerk," a "total work of art...
...He is left with her clothing, which becomes a cloud that carries him away...
...We had Oklahoma!, not the Rolling Stones, in this reverie of resentment...
...Reports suggest he will use interactive video extensively, in contrast to the Met's current "museum piece" Ring (which has, nonetheless, pretty spectacular stage effects...
...Adams insists that anyone who listens to Klinghoffer will recognize it is evenhanded, but if you see the film of it, a collaboration with Penny Woolcock, who directed Doctor Atomic at the Met, you may wonder if this composer is hard of moral hearing...
...Simultaneity—which Sellars often identifies as a key to what opera can accomplish—occurs not only on stage...
...The opera runs three hours...
...Dick Cheney was not wrong to say that citizens can't have the same information as leaders in wartime...
...Hirohito moved decisively to end the war only after Hiroshima...
...When Faust signs Mephistopheles's "old parchment," he sings, "Ah...
...Sellars, who likes to compare his efforts to Sophocles, says that watching a myth on stage enables us to pose the right questions because we already know the ending...
...An impressive cast sang an often tedious work...
...Adams's orchestrations are often more compelling than his vocal lines, and political manipulations thread the libretto...
...Adams conducted a concert version at Julliard's California festival...
...This "dramatic legend" isn't quite an opera and is usually presented in concert form...
...A gripping first-string quartet premiered recently in New York at the Julliard School's wonderfully wide-reaching festival of California New Music...
...In summer 1945, the Japanese leadership was at odds with itself and Stalin had positioned 1.5 million troops on Manchuria's border...
...Adams's larger project might best be characterized as pluralism in sound...
...The opera blends considerable musical imagination by a leading classical composer with a libretto by controversial director Peter Sellars...
...All together, we have a Western military man who cannot control his appetite in an opera that ends with a Japanese victim of Hiroshima asking for water...
...The enemy side...
...Klinghoffer is rarely performed...
...True enough but why does his "context-rich structure" exclude the Rape of Nanjing, the Japanese air force's massive air attacks on Chinese cities, Pearl Harbor, the Bataan Death March, and the wretched treatment of prisoners of war by Japan's army...
...Goethe's Faust makes no pact but wagers that he will never want to hold on to any one moment and will always go on to novelty...
...Goethe is saying that we humans must both hold on to things and go beyond ourselves...
...COUNTERFEIT FANTASY...
...Everything was well ordered in that decade...
...To which it might be added, don't see the world only through past categories...
...Adams couldn't specify it...
...The obvious answer is that it depends on the means, the ends, and the circumstances...
...Democracy needs scientists, composers, indeed, all citizens to speak out when they deem fit, including in wartime, but war cannot be run as participatory democracy...
...Counterfeit fantasy comes about when an opera's creators fiddle with political history with tendentious rather than artistic purpose...
...Read his congenial 2008 autobiography, Hallelujah Junction and you will see how important politics is for him...
...A keen problem arises if an opera's concern is recent history, but not because of a positivist demand for accuracy in art...
...What is tomorrow to me when I suffer now...
...Surrender was out of the question.Today this attitude seems irrational but then such an atmosphere was prevalent...
...They look like mug shots...
...But "people had been taught that Japan was led by a living god.and so could not lose the war...
...Indians, Arabs, and the Japanese become a homogenized Other...
...Members of the Manhattan Project agonize about its morality, especially after Germany's defeat...
...The Death of Klinghoffer (1991) provoked fury because of Goodman's "understanding" of terrorists who hijacked a cruise ship in 1985, murdered an elderly, wheelchair bound American Jewish tourist, and threw him into the Mediterranean...
...Did FDR wage the Second World War so badly...
...Should Washington have revealed that it had broken Japan's codes...
...But Truman did that on May 8, when Germany surrendered...
...The role of stage machinery has been contested since opera's early years...
...Some came to interpret everything through the experience, sometimes real and sometimes imagined, of the "1960s" as if time never goes by—or as if it moves back and forth only to those years...
...So, too, the benefits and perils of how new science is used throughout human history...
...He descends a ladder on a bookfilled, multi-tiered set whose image dissolves into a sky...
...Be careful of what you romanticize, of "realities" that carry you off, Goethe intimates...
...Sellars hopes the opera will rouse the world's conscience to put an end to nuclear weapons...
...Don't touch the natural order of things...
...art can suggest special perceptions of politics...
...Won't historical operas have endings we know...
Vol. 56 • April 2009 • No. 2
