As Old as War Itself: Rape in Foca
Barkan, Joanne
A GLASS WALL covered by blinds separated the courtroom participants from the spectators in the public gallery, but a hush enveloped both sides when the witness known as FWS-50 began to...
...But no one could plausibly dismiss the Bosnian war rapes as collateral damage...
...This was a stumbling block in almost every case because the tribunal had no police force of its own...
...Officially it no longer exists...
...some were relatives of the survivors or Foca residents who managed to flee the region...
...He wrote a grisly piece on Foca in April 1993...
...Armed guards never hesitated to beat their prisoners into submission...
...Because Nazi law forbade sex with a Jew, more attempts were made to cover up the crime or at least not draw attention to it...
...He was charged with overseeing the rape camps and raping a young prisoner the day after she asked him to help stop the atrocities...
...The Allies drafted a statute that laid out the rules for trial procedure and defined the crimes to be tried...
...The tri62 n DISSENT / Winter 2002 bunal also served to soothe public opinion...
...it would have to pry open key judicial categories—genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, violations of the laws or customs of war, grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions 2—and insert the words "rape, sexual assault, and sexual enslavement...
...She wanted everyone to hear about this: in the summer of 1992, at age sixteen, she was taken prisoner by soldiers near her village in Bosnia, held for two months, and raped so often that she lost count of how many times and how many men...
...Many rape survivors had lost their families and all property...
...The label "rape camp" describes the high school and Partizan quite well...
...From mid-April through mid-August, the camps were operated so that soldiers simply walked into the high school or Partizan, shouted out names or pointed to the females they wanted ("You...
...Take, for example, the wording of the first document prepared by the office of chief prosecutor Richard Goldstone...
...That is where they heard the news about the verdict and sentencing...
...The Serbs had a fairly regular procedure...
...The trial would be an ordeal: it would go on for months, the witnesses had to face the accused during their testimony, some of women had never before spoken about what happened in Foca...
...The lawyers took eight months to present their cases...
...They shuttled the women and girls back and forth between the high school or Partizan and the rape brothels...
...But generally they mean the following: genocide refers to crimes intended to destroy a group...
...And they did encounter the indicted criminals—on the streets, in the restaurants and bars, in police headquarters...
...they were irrelevant...
...But instead of intervention, Clinton consented, reluctantly, to an international tribunal under the auspices of the United Nations to prosecute crimes already committed...
...she was raped vaginally, anally, and orally...
...It was a mid-sized community—population 40,513—not very different from dozens of others in Bosnia...
...Gang rape was rampant...
...Rape and sexual crimes could have been prosecuted as "ill treatment" under war crimes and as "inhumane acts" under crimes against humanity but they weren't...
...In addition, the document read by Judge Mumba (which was a summary of the three-hundred-page judgment) established, on the basis of the evidence, that rape was used as an instrument of terror to drive Muslims out of the Foca district...
...The ICTY would have to set new precedents...
...The defense lawyers called twenty-nine witnesses and used various arguments to refute the charges...
...Against this background, the new International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia looked like an exceptional chance in 1993 for advocates of human rights for women to make some progress...
...and Zoran Vukovic, also a sub-commander of the military police and paramilitary leader...
...In other ICTY cases, women who planned to testify occasionally withdrew at the last moment because anxiety overwhelmed them...
...The Serbs slaughtered some men on the spot and transferred the rest to prisons and camps where starvation, filthy conditions, and torture killed many more...
...And what of the town of Foca...
...On April 8, 1992, Serb forces supported by artillery and heavy weapons attacked Foca...
...Several French soldiers from NATO were leaning against a wall, smoking when Gojko Jankovic, indicted in the rape case, strolled in...
...This was a glaring omission given that a Dutch military court in Batavia (Indonesia) in 1948 prosecuted and convicted twelve Japanese army officers of sexually enslaving thirty-five Dutch women...
...Commanders and sub-commanders, including the three tried in The Hague, set up "rape brothels" in private apartments and houses for their own use and for their men between military missions...
...resistance to rape utterly impossible...
...Forty of the women and teenagers in Partizan became pregnant...
...women, children, and the very elderly in a second group...
...From there, the deportees eventually escaped to refugee camps...
...There had been an opportunity to expand justice for women in 1945-1946 when the Allies prosecuted high-ranking Nazi officials in Nuremberg...
...Because the soldiers, including the accused, usually took more than one prisoner at a time for raping, the survivors were often able to corroborate each other's testimony...
...The NATO troops were mostly inert...
...And yet to some extent, at least for women, it did...
...The "minimum punishment...actually minimized the suffering of the victims...
...this kind of war lent itself to sexual violence...
...History—in so far as it will deal with human rights for women—will likely judge one strategic decision made by the ICTY as invaluable: the decision to put together "the rape case...
...The last to go was the precious Aladza Mosque...
...But despite public outcry in the United States and abroad, the European governments and two U.S...
...For the first time in history, an international war crimes trial focused exclusively on crimes of sexual assault...
...But all the women who survived the ordeal knew they might be ostracized by their families and their Muslim community...
...The indictment listed rape as a crime...
...Her nose started bleeding and it was very hard for the bleeding to stop...
...1. During the wars in the former Yugoslavia, Croat and Serb women, too, were brutally raped, but the great majority who suffered this crime were Muslim women...
...The judgment," she maintained, "treated the rapes as merely one of a number of things that indicated that enslavement occurred, instead of clarifying that the sole reason for the enslavement was to effectuate continuous rape...
...Yet the tribunal did not prosecute anyone for rape...
...Chief defense counsel Slavisa Prodanovic also asserted that the prosecution "did not prove that the alleged victims of rape were exposed to any severe physical or psychological suffering...
...Zoran Vukovic (who, among other offenses, raped sixteen-year-old FWS-50 and then told her that he could do much more but he had a daughter the same age) was found guilty of rape and torture as crimes against humanity and rape and torture as violations of the laws or customs of war...
...Back in Foca, individual soldiers continued to hold some of the young Muslim women and teenagers as personal sex slaves...
...WARTIME RAPE is as old as war itself...
...sexual slavery appears nowhere in the statute...
...This was neither the first nor the last time that FWS-75 was gang raped...
...The tribunal could screen their identities from the public, their names would never appear in court documents, but they still risked being re-traumatized...
...The elderly and the small children suffered some beatings, but otherwise the Serb soldiers left them alone...
...The Serb forces began the job imme6o n DISSENT / Winter 2002 YUGOSLAVIA diately...
...When Jankovic was asked about the indictment, he denied ever having committed rape, adding, "I am such a man that I can have any woman I want, and my wife is good looking...
...In 1992, the municipality of Foca included the nearby villages as well as the town...
...Roy Gutman, Newsday's Europe correspondent, was interviewing refugees and filing stories by summer 1992...
...The advocates' work had to be thorough, and there was a lot of it...
...One witness, a physician, testified that an accident in the summer of 1992 had left Zoran Vukovic impotent for three weeks and incapable of rape during that period...
...After indicting the men, the ICTY had to apprehend them...
...If the accused did not turn themselves in, the ICTY had to rely on Bosnian Serb authorities or NATO peacekeeping troops...
...But military commanders rarely drew attention to its usefulness...
...The record improved slightly under the ToYUGOSLAVIA kyo tribunal (1946-1948), where the Allies prosecuted high-ranking Japanese officials for crimes committed in the Far East...
...she was raped by soldiers and paramilitary thugs...
...The tribunal sentenced him to twelve years in prison...
...A GLASS WALL covered by blinds separated the courtroom participants from the spectators in the public gallery, but a hush enveloped both sides when the witness known as FWS-50 began to speak...
...The court reconvened on February 22, 2001 to hear presiding Judge Florence Mumba of Zambia read out the verdicts and sentences...
...Closing arguments ended on November 22, 2000...
...From the beginning of the Foca investigation, the prosecutor's office had to find the right YUGOSLAVIA balance between encouraging women to testify and not pressuring anyone to do so...
...Over the course of the next year, some managed to flee, some were sold for Deutsche marks to soldiers passing through town...
...All eight were born in the municipality...
...The statute of each international court lists the categories of crimes that will be prosecuted by that court...
...They usually transported a new batch of these prisoners to a temporary detention center where some of the women—most often the younger ones—were raped for the first time, frequently by more than one soldier...
...Surrounded by trees, with its tall dome, triple-arched portico, and slender minaret rising more than a hundred feet to a point, the mosque was as much a town landmark in 1992 as it was in 1551...
...Other witnesses provided background or expert testimony...
...Of the scores of women and girls brutalized there, sixteen were able to testify...
...The tribunal sentenced him to twenty-eight years in prison...
...Mass rape carried out methodically and publicly could terrorize an entire community...
...she was gang raped by ten men at a time...
...On August 13, they loaded most of the Partizan inmates onto buses for Montenegro...
...After a day or two, the prisoners were trucked to one of the main rape camps...
...As for prosecuting mass rape, there was precious little to build on...
...A fourth, Foca's police chief, was killed when NATO troops tried to arrest him...
...The international media began reporting on the rape camps almost immediately, and the reports depicted a systematic policy, rape as a primary tactic in a war strategy...
...The occupying forces included army units, paramilitaries, and military police...
...Clearly, international law needed amending if it was going to include women in its system of justice...
...The prosecutors used the mass rape atrocities in Nanking in 1937, along with other crimes, to convict the Japanese leaders...
...When they joined in the ethnic cleansing of the district in 1992, their ages ranged from twenty-three to thirty-seven...
...crimes against humanity are inhumane acts committed on a widespread, systematic basis against civilians during peacetime or war...
...This was a motion in a case involving several camps where mass rapes of women had taken place...
...The rapes were mentioned in passing, like road accidents...
...The other three accused men remained at large...
...The Blaustein Institute, the Women's International Human Rights Clinic, and the Harvard University Human Rights Program made their critique in an amicus memorandum, and the prosecutor's office reworded the motion...
...Military forces in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cambodia, and East Timor, as well as the Balkans used it as an instrument of terror for ethnic cleansing and genocide...
...When the fighting began, five of them became paramilitary leaders in Foca as well as sub-commanders in the Bosnian Serb military police, two joined a special reconnaissance unit of the Bosnian Serb army, and one was appointed chief of police in Foca...
...Jurists consider the ICTY's sentencing practices lenient in general, but the Foca sentences seemed excessively so...
...FWS-50 was one of thousands—some say twenty thousand—Muslim women sexually enslaved and tortured by Bosnian Serbs, Serbs, and Montenegrins during the Bosnian War of 1992-1995.' She was one of sixteen women from the town of Foca (pronounced Fo'-cha) and its surrounding villages in southeastern Bosnia who agreed to testify in 2000 before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, located in The Hague...
...It has always served at least two purposes: to intimidate the enemy and to reward the troops as booty...
...Radomir Kovac, a sub-commander of the military police and paramilitary leader...
...and raped them on the premises wherever, however, and as often as they liked...
...For the first time in an ICTY trial, rape was successfully prosecuted as a crime against humanity (the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda made DISSENT / Winter 2002 n 65 YUGOSLAVIA this breakthrough for the first time in history in 1998...
...The opportunity was lost...
...They wanted the following: rape and sexual slavery specified as crimes in the ICTY statute, more women as judges and prosecutors, a senior official in the prosecutor's office experienced in prosecuting sexual offenses, nondiscriminatory wording in ICTY documents, women on evidence-gathering teams in the field, funding for a victims unit to protect women and all traumatized witnesses during trials, and, of course, aggressive prosecution of sexual offenses...
...The leniency of the sentences left them "seriously shaken," she said...
...Everyone in the second group went to the rape camps...
...In late 1994, the ICTY office of the prosecutor, supported by women's rights advocates, began the investigation for a rape case...
...But these [men] were serial rapists, people who raped untold numbers of victims over and over again and were also responsible for countless others raping the detainees...
...The youngest, the teenagers, suffered this calamity most often...
...Those women whose families had survived the war knew they could be ostracized for speaking about rape in public...
...Nongovernmental organizations and university-based institutes wrote briefs and letters, requested meetings, did press work, and held seminars and conferences...
...After the war ended, after the women and girls who survived Foca left the refugee camps, many made their way to Sarajevo, now the capital of what is left of Bosnia-Herzegovina...
...Only now it is their Foca—rid of practically every Muslim and every indication that a Muslim ever lived and worshipped there...
...For the first time in history, an international court found that crimes of sexual assault, under certain conditions, amount to enslavement as a crime against humanity...
...Conventional wisdom classified wartime rape as an unfortunate byproduct of war, not as an instrument of war...
...FWS50 faced the men she was accusing—all three Bosnian Serbs, all three soldiers in the war, all three, like herself, born in Foca...
...In one of the subsequent trials held in Nuremberg, the United States (as one of the occupying powers) prosecuted lower-ranking Nazis under the Allied Control Council Law No...
...A third turned himself in because he expected, incorrectly, that the charges would be dropped...
...she was threatened with guns and knives while being raped...
...Sometimes the soldiers kept the women for several hours or a few days...
...66 n DISSENT / Winter 2002...
...The accused were Dragoljub Kunarac, commander of a special reconnaissance unit of the Bosnian Serb army...
...Escape from either camp was nearly impossible...
...The other disappointment—a bitter one for the survivors—was the sentencing...
...But it had little funding, no means to arrest suspects, and no credibility...
...Those who went first to the high school stayed anywhere from several days to several weeks...
...Sometimes they relied on witnesses to establish alibis for the whereabouts of the accused...
...Indicating one of the defendants, she said, I only know that he was very forceful, that he wanted to hurt me as much as possible...
...The sixteen survivors described the assaults they had suffered, when and where these took place, who else was present, and the crimes they saw carried out against other women and girls...
...The defense rejected the charge of enslavement because the accused had not been in permanent possession of the women...
...They reflect an appropriate sentence for a single act of rape as a war crime," Askin said...
...Like every other ICTY case, the Foca case depended almost entirely on witness testimony...
...They developed bladder and menstrual disorders, chronic vaginal infections, exhaustion...
...During that time, wartime rape changed along with war...
...The overall health of the rape slaves deteriorated rapidly...
...The London Times reported a remarkable scene in a Foca café in July 1996...
...The ICTY statute includes genocide, crimes against humanity (but limited to the wartime), violations of the laws or customs of war, and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949...
...The place they chose to investigate was Foca...
...The youngest—a twelve year old—disappeared, never to be heard from again...
...Ethnic conflicts, which were increasingly in the news, targeted civilian populations...
...How long a woman stayed in a rape brothel depended on the whim of whoever was in command that day...
...They made few arrests although the Dayton peace accord (which officially ended the fighting in the former Yugoslavia) mandated them to detain any indicted war criminal they encountered...
...I N PRE-OTTOMAN times, Foca was one of the trading towns along the Drina River, located about thirty-two miles southeast of Sarajevo and about thirty miles southwest of its more famous neighbor, Visegrad, the setting for Nobel Laureate No Andric's The Bridge over the Drina...
...war crimes are serious violations of laws governing armed conflict committed by armed forces against civilians and prisoners of war on the other side of the conflict (one case of rape can be a war crime...
...From there, most were transferred to Partizan, where roughly seventyfive people (two-thirds of them women and teenage girls) were trapped at any one time...
...By April 17, they had taken the town, although fighting in the surrounding villages continued into the summer...
...Before long, more than 20 percent of the charges filed at the ICTY involved allegations of sexual assault— an extraordinarily high percentage in light of the past record...
...From the start, most observers considered the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICTY) a sop to human rights and feminist activists who wanted intervention...
...But every step forward, as it turned out, required a lobbying campaign...
...0 N JUNE 26, 1996, the ICTY indicted eight men from Foca on sixty-two counts of crimes against humanity, grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949, and violations of the laws or customs of war...
...The prosecutors would investigate only sexual crimes and only those committed against women...
...The ethnic breakdown was 51.6 percent Muslim, 45.3 percent Serbian, and 3.1 percent "other...
...the men were Bosnian Serbs, Serbs, and a smaller number of Montenegrins...
...The fifth— recognizable by the tattoo on his forehead that read, "I was dead even before I was born"— blew himself up with a hand grenade during his arrest...
...The rape trial—the first of its kind in history— began on March 20, 2000...
...He added, "The rape in itself is not an act that inflicts severe bodily pain...
...In Asia, the situation of the former "comfort women"...was part of the war machine in that the soldiers did not have to go out looking for sex....But the sexual slavery was not used to terrorize the enemy, but for protecting the soldiers from venereal diseases, etc...
...All the other acts—the selling, the physical mistreatment, the manual labor—were not the reason behind the enslavement...
...Dragoljub Kunarac (who, among other offenses, offered to let a soldier rape FWS-186 in the presence of FWS-191 for 100 Deutsche marks) was found guilty of rape, torture, and enslavement as crimes against humanity and rape and torture as violations of the laws or customs of war...
...Instead, the ubiquity of wartime rape allowed them to portray it as inevitable...
...The Foca trial will surely have an impact on international human rights law...
...Some had wives and children...
...Radomir Kovac (who, among other offenses, raped FWS-75 and FWS-87 as he played a recording of Swan Lake) was found guilty of rape and enslavement as crimes against humanity and rape and outrages upon personal dignity as violations of the laws or customs of war...
...When the prosecutor asked why she had decided to testify after remaining silent for almost eight years, she said, [to] let it be known that it really happened...
...The ICTY statute lists both rape and enslavement as crimes against humanity, but neither word fully captures what happened to the women and girls in Foca...
...The Serbs also aimed to impregnate as many women as possible, certainly for the added trauma this would produce, but also to expend the procreative capacity of Muslim women on Serb-sired babies...
...Their mission was to rid the Foca district of its Muslim citizens so the territory could be annexed, along with other parts of Bosnia, to create a Greater Serbia...
...JOANNE BARKAN is a New York-based writer...
...Everyone who followed the trial agrees that much harsher sentences would have been appropriate and perhaps given the rape camp survivors a small measure of relief...
...If rape were overshadowed in most trials by other crimes, the possibility of breaking new legal ground for women's rights decreased...
...Before the war, they did various jobs—café owner, car mechanic, waiter, electrician...
...presidents (George Bush I, then Bill Clinton) refused to intervene to stop the atrocities...
...But the women and girls of Foca and the human rights advocates knew from the start that the rape trial, the ICTY, and all international war crimes tribunals represent a failure more than anything else, a human failure to intervene and stop whatever produces crimes against humanity...
...The record for enforcing whatever law did exist and prosecuting sexual assaults was "a wholesale failure" in the words of Diane Orentlicher of the War Crimes Research Office at American University's law school...
...Unlike the prosecutors in Nuremberg who made use of the voluminous records kept by the Nazis, the 1CTY prosecutors had almost no documentation...
...The leaders of the new Republika Srpska (the country created by Bosnian Serbs from the territory they took over and "ethnically cleansed") stonewalled or, in a ploy that amounted to the same thing, they claimed that local authorities had jurisdiction...
...it was simply one of the ghastly things that happened during war because war was ghastly...
...Even in the early stages of the tribunal's work, the lobbying to get prosecutors to pay attention to sexual offenses paid off...
...The Republika Srpska gave it a new Serb name—Srbinje...
...Nearly every unmarried woman taken to the camps was a virgin, so the sexual torture had an added dimension of shock and pain for them...
...The prosecution called thirty-three witnesses during the trial...
...Overall, many prosecutors and judges were responsive, some even courageous...
...they beat two to death...
...It's not easier for me to speak about it today, but nevertheless, I wanted everyone to hear about it...
...FVEN CRITICS of the ICTY and resolute skeptics of all international tribunals i appreciate what the Foca trial accomplished...
...Almost no one expected it to succeed...
...According to Kelly Askin, the judgment could have and should have used the term sexual slavery...
...These included Foca High School and Partizan Sports Hall ("Partizan" for short), which was a gymnasium near the central police station...
...But, hypothetically, a case devoted to just one type of crime, just one category of victim, and just one place might have significant impact on the law and on public opinion...
...they were destitute, homeless, and too frightened to testify...
...As soon as they took over a village or a neighborhood in town, they rounded up any Muslims who had not already fled and separated them into two groups: men and older boys in one group...
...It was the original collateral damage...
...The tribunal sentenced him to twenty years in prison...
...The statute they wrote—called the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal— did not contain the word rape although rape was rampant during the war in Europe...
...The human rights advocates got some, but definitely not all, of what they wanted...
...But he could never hurt me as much as my soul always hurt me...
...2. Fixed definitions of these categories do not exist, the categories overlap, and not every judicial proceeding uses all the categories...
...Serb forces demolished all of Foca's fourteen mosques during the summer of 1992...
...In an interview, Kelly Askin of American University's War Crimes Research Office contrasted this use of rape with aspects of rape during the Second World War...
...10, which did include rape in its definition of crimes against humanity...
...AFTER THE Batavia trial, no court prosecuted rape as a war crime or crime against humanity under international law for almost fifty years...
...But in any individual DISSENT / Winter 2002 r 63 YUGOSLAVIA case, the rape of women was only one crime among many being prosecuted...
...Reality was, for example, the night a twenty-five-yearold woman—witness FWS-7 5—was taken from Partizan to one of the houses where she was gang raped by fifteen men for more than three hours...
...She started to scream and cry...
...Foca was no different...
...The images from Bosnia broadcast on television, with their unnerving resemblance to Nazi concentration camps, shocked Americans...
...violations of the laws or customs of war are a subcategory of war crimes, often including crimes such as the use of poisonous gas or wanton destruction of property...
...The body of international law of war, which sovereign states had been assembling since the 1860s, largely neglected rape...
...grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions are violations of the war crimes listed in the Conventions...
...The soldiers paid no attention to him, and when asked why they were not making an arrest, they said, "We are an army, not the police...
...Thus the pervasiveness was not as well recognized...
...Sometimes they enslaved the women for weeks, even months...
...The Ottomans gave Foca its claim to fame in 1551 when they built the Aladza Mosque (Colored Mosque), which many considered the most beautiful mosque in the former Yugoslavia and one of the architectural jewels of Europe...
...64 n DISSENT / Winter 2002 This was senseless: local authorities would not arrest the accused because often they were the accused...
...Although a voice modulator screened her identity from the public, other microphones in the room occasionally picked up the undisguised sounds of her anguish...
...The ICTY statute, for example, lists rape under crimes against humanity but not under other headings...
...Like prison camp inmates, the detainees had little to eat, they slept on the floor, they had no hygienic facilities or medicine, and they had only the clothes on their backs...
...Regarding dozens of other rapes, the defense did not deny that rape had taken place but argued that the prosecution had not proved rape because some of the women, according to the defense, liked the soldiers...
...Human rights groups and organizations devoted specifically to human rights for women kept up the pressure...
...But the indictment never mentioned the sexual enslavement of some two hundred thousand women—the "comfort women"—in the countries occupied and colonized by the Japanese Imperial Army...
...she was trapped in an apartment where she had to clean for the soldiers who raped her all night...
...Human rights activists celebrated the progress, but they had hoped for one additional precedent...
...When they brought her back to the door," FWS-5 I testified, "she fell on the floor...
...According to Felice Gaer, director of the American Jewish Committee's Blaustein Institute for Human Rights, the motion made cursory reference to the rapes, and "then the phrase 'what was worse' was used to describe a single atrocity—one man being forced to bite off the testicles of another...
...The strategy was to terrorize, humiliate, and stigmatize the women so completely—and through them, the men and children—that all Muslims would leave the territory and never return...
...The charges against them included rape, torture, outrages upon personal dignity, persecution on political, racial and/or religious grounds, willfully causing great suffering, enslavement, and inhuman treatment—all directed against the Muslim women of their hometown...
...But visitors to the town report that all the locals still call the place Foca...
...Some became suicidal, others slipped into depression and became indifferent to their fate...
...When the United Nations voted the ICTY into existence on May 25, 1993, the only precedents for the new court were the international war crimes tribunals at Nuremberg and in the Far East after the Second World War...
...The camps had a specific function: they served as convenient collection sites where Serb forces could find their designated target—Muslim women—and carry out a campaign of systematic mass rape...
...A bus terminal now occupies the site...
...CALAMVIT IS just a word...
...Between the original indictment and the start of the trial (almost four years), NATO troops arrested two of the eight accused...
...Nezira Zolota, spokesperson for a Sarajevo-based association of female camp survivors, talked to some of the Foca women when the report came in...
...Rape charges are especially difficult to prosecute because few survivors agree to testify...
...By midsummer Serb forces controlled the DISSENT / Winter 2002 n 61 YUGOSLAVIA Foca district...
...The Serbs blew it up on August 2 and threw the rubble into the river...
...The prosecutors prepared for the trial with only three defendants in custody (the ICTY does not try anyone in absentia...
...The Serbs regularly taunted their victims while they were being raped: "Now you'll have Serb babies...
Vol. 49 • January 2002 • No. 1
