Anxiety in Politics

...While the non-affective mass-organization—like a normal political party—can exist for a long time without disintegrating, the caesarist movement must hurry precisely because of the instability of the cement that holds it together: the libido-charged affectivity...

...143...

...The inability to understand the process of crises, and the frequent need to ascribe blame for them to sinister powers, is an additional factor in the destruction of the ego...

...But the commander-in-chief of the 20th century is much more the technician of war than the leader of men, and the libidinal tie of the soldier is, if I may coin the phrase, essentially cooperative, namely with the smallest group of comrades with whom he shares dangers...

...Thus I would like to establish two fundamental types of identification: a libido-charged (affective) and a libido-free (affect-less) ; and maintain generally that the non-affective identification with an organization is less regressive than the affective identification with a leader...

...Political life can, for example, be exhausted in the competition of political parties which are purely machines without mass participation, but which monopolize politics to such an extent that a new party cannot make its way within the valid rules of the game...

...Without this element of truth Cola's propaganda and policy would never have been successful...

...One may call them: cooperative and caesaristic...

...3) An important clue for the regressive character is the view of history of false concreteness—the conspiracy theory...

...This world domination was to be a mock-democracy, through which the Jewish leaders were to operate...

...This famous passage in Dostoyevsky is important not only because it verifies our psychological theory, but also because it shows at the same time that the leader activates anxiety through guilt for his own advantage, not for the sake of the led...

...But even where fair competition is effective, no effort will help if crises ruin the merchant...

...but these are—in accord with the morality that prevails in the group— with the Lacedaemonians, the Nihilists, the SS—not crimes, but fundamentally moral acts...

...In fact the science of group psychology began with this aristocratic prejudice in the work of the Italian Scipio Sighele, and Le Bon's famous book is completely in this tradition...

...The feeling of guilt is thus repressed and makes anxiety a nearly panicky one, which can be overcome only through unconditional surrender to the leader and compels the commission of new crimes...

...I cannot here undertake a social analysis to show that this ethically circumscribed competition does not exist and perhaps never has existed, that in reality a monopolist struggle hides behind it, that, in other words, the efforts of the individual, his intelligence, his vision, his readiness to take risks, are easily shattered by the constellations of power...

...One need only read, for example, the terrible Calvinist fanatic John Knox in his famous First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women and we will find there: "We se our countrie set furthe for a pray to foreine nations, we heare the blood of our brethren, the membres of Christ Iesus most cruelly to be shed, and the monstruous empire of a cruell woman...

...then, the Epi141 curean attitude toward politics, the view that politics and states only have to supply the element of order within which man devotes himself to his perfection, so that forms of state and of government appear as secondary matters...

...the economic decay of Rome...

...Whoever takes the trouble to study the eighth religious war '(the War of the a Henrys...

...In these inflammatory pamphlets whose demagogy even surpasses that of the Huguenots, the theory of democracy is fitted out with the theocratic traits, the masses of-the people are integrated through the social contract, in order to be identified with Henry of Guise...

...The former always contains strong rationalist elements, elements of calculability between organization and individual, and thus prevents the total extinction of the ego...

...Do not suffer any of the rapacious wolves whom you have driven from the fold to rush again into your midst...

...To be sure, he publicly humiliated the barons but he did not liquidate them—whether out of cowardice, decency, or tactical considerations...

...This is how Petrarch formulates it in his famous letter of congratulation to Cola: "These barons in whose defense you [the-Romans] have so often shed your blood, whom you have nourished with your own substance...

...It is the task of the leader, by creating neurotic anxiety, to tie the led so closely to the leader that they would perish without idenification with him...

...I believe that the French religious wars of the 16th cen tury make my thesis a little clearer: that the affect-less identification with an institution (state) is less regressive than identification with a leader...

...The historical facts—the residence of the Papal Court in Avignon...

...But I have pointed out elsewhere that the word "apathy" describes three different political reactions: first, the lack of interest in politics, say the opinion that politics is not the business of the citizens because it is after all only a struggle between small cliques and that therefore nothing ever changes fundamentally...

...Critics of Le Bon, among them also Freud, have pointed out that his theory, which rests on Sighele and Tarde, is inadequate in two aspects: the answer to the question, What holds the masses together...

...There is little doubt that the principle of competition dominates not only the economy but all social relations...

...INSTEAD OF CONTINUING WITH THIS SURVEY, it may perhaps be useful to discuss a fundamental model of conspiracy theories, one which shows the sequence: intensification of anxiety through manipulation, identification, false concreteness...

...This caesaristic identification is always regressive, historically and psychologically...

...4) Social alienation...

...he understood the false concreteness of the view of history of both parties...

...It would be mistaken to want to construe a connection between the socio-economic status of a person and his anti-Semitism...

...3) THE EIGHT,.FaFNCu RELIGJQUS WARS . of , the 16th century furnish excellent material for the', illumination of the character of caesaristic as well as organizational identifications...

...Probably no one doubts that...

...Both positions, the Catholic and the Huguenot, are regressive, while that of the Politiqu'es, which Henry IV was later to convert into action, is 'incomparably more progressive...

...I shall confine my analysis to Germany, but the German situation can be understood only when one becomes aware of the fact that in Germany before 1933 spontaneous anti-Semitism was extremely weak...

...that is...

...Caesarisfic Identification and False Concreteness: The Conspiracy Theory in History Caesaristic identifications may play a role in history when the situation of masses is objectively endangered, when the masses are incapable of understanding the historical process, and when the anxiety activated by the danger becomes neurotic persecutory anxiety through manipulation...

...The historical process is personified in his manner...

...It can hardly be doubted that anxiety, even purely physical fear of the arbitrariness of the barons, drove the people to Cola...

...This clue is the view of history which the masses and the leaders employ...

...these barons have judged you unworthy of liberty...

...They have been restrained neither by pity for their unhappy country, nor by love for it...

...Only through hatred of an enemy...

...If he championed absolute monarchy—that is, the identification of the people with the monarch—he did so because the monarch was to place himself above the religions that were fighting each other and to ally himself with the households of the third- estate in order to save France...

...But fundamentally this was a false concreteness, for even if he had succeeded in liquidating the barons—what would have been decisively improved in Rome...

...is inadequate, for the existence of a "racial soul" is unproved...

...that is, to claim that the academically educated person is more immune than the uneducated, or the poorly paid more immune than the better paid...

...He possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the ferocity, and also the enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings...

...5) THE CAESARISTIC MOVEMENT IS COMPELLED to institutionalize anxiety in two cases: if its coming into power is delayed and after it has actually seized control of the state...

...the industrial worker, he yet holds fast to his middle class ideology and customs...

...their destruction will permit Rome to rise ,again to its ancient greatness...

...And again, "In the race for wealth and honours and preferments, each may 140 run as hard as he can and strain every nerve and every muscle in order to outstrip all his competitors...

...and not as a matter of course (and perhaps not at all) for that of lovers and of small groups...

...Man in the mass descends...

...With all this the thesis of the Jewish conspiracy had the element of truth necessary to permit this view of history to become a frightful weapon...

...in a crowd, he is a barbarianthat is, a creature acting by instinct...

...The Jews remained...

...The most important example—if only because of its immense political influence—is the theory of the conspiracy of the Jews according to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion...

...And he sees in the libido the cement which holds leader and masses together, whereby— as is known—the concept of libido is to be taken in a very broad sense, to include the instinctual activities, which "in relations between the sexes...

...The existence of a total anti-Semitism can perhaps be better understood if we start from the policy of National Socialism and seek to understand the role of anti-Semitism within the political system...

...But this cooperative form is rare, limited to short periods or in any case operative only for small groups...

...1) However, before we describe these historical situations, I may perhaps point to a clue which will frequently permit us an early diagnosis of the regressive character of such a mass movement...

...the falser, the more regressive...

...As is frequently true in socialpsychological studies, the descriptions of psychological states are adequate, the theoretical analyses inadequate...

...The rule of the Catholic Catherine de Medici, of Marie of Lorraine (the predecessor of Mary Stuart) and of Mary Tudor appears here not only as a violation of divine commandment (because God has subjected women to men) but as a genuine conspiracy against the true religion...

...In addition, in Le Bon the decisive problem—the role of the leader-hypnotist—remains unclarified...

...But so far we have, not yet said when such regressive mass movements are activated...

...We shall call it caesaristic identification...

...Its peculiar danger lies in the kernel of truth that is contained in this view of history...

...It is my thesis that wherever affective (i.e., caesaristic) leader-identifications occur in politics, masses and leader have this view of history: i.e., that the distress which has befallen the masses has been brought about exclusively by a conspiracy of certain persons or groups against the people...

...The Catholics —with a longer tradition of tyrannicide—developed...

...3) In every society that is composed of antagonistic groups there is an ascent and descent of groups...

...But there is more than a quantitative difference between the anxiety which is institutionalizd in a totally repressive system and that which is the basis of a half-way liberal one...

...This is precisely what follows from its affective basis...

...The decisive affective identification is that of masses with leaders...

...Germany of 1930-33 was the land of alienation and anxiety...

...IT IS TIME TO SUMMARIZE our results: 1) Psychological alienation—the alienation of the ego from the instinctual structure, or the renunciation of instinctual gratifications— is inherent in every historical society...

...They'll be your slaves, they won't dare to rebel or call you to account...

...Yet the conscience—the super-ego—protests against the morality of the crimes, for the old moral convictions cannot simply be extirpated...

...This third form of apathy forms the core of what I characterize as political alienation...

...German National Socialism and Italian Fascism are classical examples...

...The truer it is, one might say, the less regressive the movement...

...Thus the identification with a leader in a mass is a kind of historical regression...

...are diverted from this aim or are prevented from reaching it, though always preserving enough of their 133 original nature to keep their identity recognizable (as in such features as the longings for proximity, and self-sacrifice) ." The cement which holds the mass together and ties them to the leader is thus a sum of instincts that are inhibited in their aims...

...I do not need to discuss this here...

...It seems to me incorrect, above all for recent history, to see in the identification of the soldier with the army, i.e., in the loyalty to an organization, an actual identification of the soldier with the commanderinchief...

...Hatred, resentment, dread, created by great upheavals, are concentrated on certain persons who are denounced as devilish conspirators...

...i.e., the fear of social degradation, is not adequate by itself...

...As the slave of unconscious—i.e...

...the regrouping of class relations through the rise of the bourgeois cavalerotti—all that Cola could not change...

...It was Cola's fundamental mistake that he was not enough of a Caesar...

...for Le Bon, regressive—sentiments man in the mass is degraded into a barbarian: "Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual...

...The Huguenot pamphleteer Francois Hotman in his , ,Tiger, saw in the Cardinal...

...It must, however, not be overlooked that every political system is based on anxiety...

...What are the historical situations in which this identification of leader and masses is successful, and what view of history do the men have who accept leaders...

...Indeed, the great merit of the chief representative of the party of the Pjolitiques, Jean Bodin, consists in this:- he saw the economic problems 'of France Clearly...

...These are qualitatively different states of affairs...

...But how was the people to be integrated?—despite all cleavages of class, party, religion...

...It is conceivable (and it has probably happened in short periods in history) that many equals identify themselves cooperatively with one another in such a manner that their egos are merged in the collective ego...

...and the relation between citizen and state becomes rational...

...It grows with the growth of modern industrial society, and produces anxiety...

...Non-affective loyalty is transferable, personal loyalty is not...

...The inability to understand why man should be so hard-pressed stimulated anxiety which was made into neurotic anxiety by the National Socialist policy of terror and its propaganda of anti-Semitism...

...Then the leader orders the commission of crimes...

...prevails, that is, competition in which more or less equally strong persons fight with fair methods...

...But if he jostle or throw down any of them, the indulgence of the spectator is entirely at an end...

...they seemed to be the successful competitors sexually and professionally...

...that is, when he exerts himself, is intelligent, and accepts risks...

...It cannot be denied that the feudal lords, above all the Colonna and Orsini, had pursued a criminal policy...

...Unfortunately John Knox had the ill luck of seeing Protestantism restored in England by a woman and he apologized to Elizabeth in a Second Blast for his first attack...

...The conflict between Negroes and whites in the southern states of the U.S., the contemporary struggle of the South African government against the natives, takes place in accord with the following scheme: the anxiety of a dominant white minority that it will be degraded through the economic and political rise of Negroes is used in propagandist fashion for the creation of affective mass movements, which frequently take on a fascist character...

...Hence this anxiety is qualitatively different from the anxiety that is the basis of every political system...

...1) Alienation of labor: it is the .separation of labor from the product of labor through hierarchical division of labor which characteristizes modern industrial society...

...The institutionalization of anxiety is necessary in the first case because it can never endure a long wait for power...

...Now this is not convincing when genuine competition really...

...To be successful in present-day society, it is much more important to stand in well with the powerful than to preserve oneself through one's own strength...

...While thus the historical-religious defamation of the Jews forms the basis without which anti-Semitism could hardly be activated, the catechistic representation of the crucifixion is not sufficient by itself...

...Situations of Collective Anxiety, identification, Guilt We have distinguished three strata of alienation...

...it follows further, that not every mass movement is based on anxiety, and thus not every mass movement need be caesaristic...

...anxiety which man in then mass attempts to...

...It is precisely the impotence of the individual who has to accommodate himself to the technological apparatus which is destructive and anxiety-creating...

...After it has come to power it faces the need of institutionalizing anxiety as a means of preventing the extinction of its affective base by its bureaucratic structure...

...German romantic psychology of labor calls this the "de-souling of labor" (Entseelung der Arbeit) . This concept as well as the various remedies are dangerous—for they cover up the 'inevitability of this process of alienation which must be admitted, understood, and accepted...

...2) IN A SOCIETY WUICH IS CONSTITUTED by competition, the competitor is supposed to be rewarded for -his effort when he is competent...

...There are affect-less identifications, in which coercion or common material interests play an essential role, either in bureaucratic-hierarchic or in cooperative form...

...His theses are familiar...

...The danger consists in the fact that this view of history is never completely false, but always contains a kernel of truth and, indeed, must contain it, if it is to have a convincing effect...

...It is in violation of fair play, which they cannot admit of...

...But I believe that one must also distinguish two types within affective identification...

...It is—as I have said—the most 134 regressive form, for it is built upon a nearly total ego-shrinkage...

...and finally, as the third reaction, the conscious rejection of the whole political system which expresses itself as apathy because the individual sees no possibility of changing anything in the system through his efforts...

...Calvin's theory of the secular redeemer sent by God to overthrow tyrants—in the 17th century- the basis of Cromwell's leadership—became the Protestant theory of Caesarism...

...It could not be Bolshevism, because it was too strong...

...These contain the secret plans of Jewish leaders, supposedly formulated in the year 1897, for achieving Jewish world domination by force, terror, corruption, the disintegrating influence of liberalism, freemasonry, etc...

...One may perhaps say that the totally repressive system institutionalizes depressive and persecutory anxiety, the halfway liberal system, real anxiety.* Who does not here think of Dostoyevsky's The Possessed, when Stavrogin gives the following piece of advice: "All that business of • One has to be clear about the fact that a totally repressive system is held together not by neurotic anxiety alone—it depends on keeping this anxiety alive in significant groups—but that material advantages and prestige are equally important...

...Karen Homey, a representative of Freudian revisionism, claims that the destructive character of competition creates,great anxiety in neurotic persons...

...Despite the absolute submission to the prince which is demanded of the people, 137 this identification contains the two rational elements which I mentioned before: loyalty becomes transferable, i.e., the office is separated from the office holder...

...Anxiety can be protective, destructive, or cathartic...

...Non-affective identification too, cannot be simply considered as regressive...

...4) Naturally I cannot here discuss all similar situations...

...If this does, not happen, if one refuses, to take account of ,the inevitability of the division of labor and of the hierarchical ordering of the process of labor and attempts to make dependent labor "soulfull", instead of restricting it to a minimum, then social anxiety' isdeepened...

...Catholics and Protestants alike saw the prgblem...

...this identification is also a "substitute for a libidinal object tie," thus a psychological regression, a damaging of the ego, perhaps even the loss of the ego...

...I have mentioned Cola di Rienzo, because it is a marginal case in, which it is doubtful whether we are dealing with a regressive or a 136 progressive movement...

...All three parties—Huguenots, Catholics, and Politiques-were faced with grave problems: the disintegration of the old ' society through silver inflation, , loss of .wealth on the one hand, enrichment on the other, the beginnings of radical changes in class relations and the 'dissolution.of , the absolute monarchy after' ,the death of Francis I. It is against this background that,the religious wars must be understood...

...4) The intensification of anxiety into persecutory anxiety is successful when a group (class, religion, race) is threatened by loss of status, without understanding the process which leads to its degradation...

...The fear of social degradation thus creates for itself "a target for the discharge of the resentments arising from damaged self-esteem...

...2) An interesting affective identification of leader and masses is the relation of, ;Cola di Rienzo to the Roman people...

...But how could one settle on the enemy...

...Thus it is a question of determining the historical conditions in which a regressive mass movement under a Caesar tries to win political power...

...That the Protocols are a forgery, prepared by Czarist Russians, was definitely established by the Bern trial of 1934-35...

...In this respect Cola was deficient...

...In all other matters his relation corresponded exactly to that of the libido-charged identification leader-masses...

...FROM THE OUTSET, FREUD SEES THE PROBLEM as that of the identification of masses with a leader...

...The examples are too numerous to be possibly mentioned here...

...persuade four members of the circle to do for a fifth on the pretence that he is a traitor, and you'll tie them all together with the blood they've shed as though it were a knot...

...From this follows, first of all, that not every situation dangerous to the masses must lead to a caesaristic movement...

...that is, the., kind of competition which Adam Smith defines in his Theory of Moral Sentiments as follows: "One individual must never prefer himself so much even to any other individual as to hurt or injure that other in order to benefit himself, though the benefit of the one should be much greater than the hurt or injury to the other...

...the Catholic Church could not be so designated because it was needed politically and loyalties to it were anchored too securely...

...The goal of National Socialism was clear: the welding together of the people with the charismatic leader, for the purpose of the conquest of Europe and perhaps of the world, and the creation of a racial hegemony of the Germans over all other peoples...

...The attitude of the so-called "new middle class" (salaried employees) can exactiy be understood from this...

...He did not do this...

...142 titles and sentimentalism is a very good cement, but there is something better...

...Nothing would be more incorrect than to characterize the enemies as scapegoats, for they appear as genuine enemies whom one must extirpate and not as substitutes whom one only needs to send into the wilderness...

...It is the form which is of decisive significance for us...

...The element of truth (if one may call it that) is first of all a religious one: the catechistic representation of the crucifixion and with 138 it the blood guilt of the Jews...

...They appeared in the public consciousness as powerful—but were in reality weak...

...But not only social classes resist their degradation by means of such mass movements—religious and racial conflicts, too, frequently produce similar phenomena...

...What is correct, however, is that there exists a connection between loss of social status and anti-Semitism...

...The facts are familiar: defeat, a tame unfinished revolution, inflation, depression, non-identification with the existing political parties, non-functioning of the political system—all these are symptoms of moral, social, and political homelessness...

...With this view of history real anxiety, which had been produced by war, want, hunger, anarchy, is to be transformed into neurotic anxiety and is to be overcome by means of identification with the leaderdemagogue through total ego-renunciation, to the advantage of the 135 leader aid his clique, whose true interests do not necessarily have to correspond to those of the masses...

...Usually this apathy, if it operates within social alienation, leads to the partial paralysis of the state and opens the way to a caesarist movement which, scorning the rules of the game, utilizes the inability of the citizen to make individual decisions and compensates for the loss of ego with identification with a Caesar...

...He must stand above the masses...

...According to him, monarchy rests on the honor of the monarch...

...5) Generally, this leads to political alienation, i.e., the conscious rejection of the rules of the game of a political system...

...Since the identification of masses with the leader is an alienation of the individual member, identification always constitutes a regression, and a twofold one...

...In order to get at this problem we must take into account the two other strata of alienation: the social and political...

...he is, as it were, hypnotized by the leader (operateur) and in this condition is capable of committing acts which he would never commit as an individual...

...i.e., when it declines and does not understand the historical process or is prevented from understanding it...

...They were relative strangers, and at the same time the concrete symbols of a so-called parasitical capitalism— through their position in commerce and finance they incarnated a supposedly decadent morality through their avant garde position in art and literature...

...The religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries are full of such his torical constructions...

...calculability of sanctions...

...force their way toward sexual union," as well as those which "in other circumstances...

...Modern man knows this...

...Cola succeeded in strengthening this anxiety by extremely skillful propaganda and achieved victory...

...As a rule one is satisfied with defining abstention from voting at elections as political apathy...

...Montesquieu, building on Aristotle and Machiavelli, distinguished between three constitutional and one tyrannical governmental and social system...

...Of course, I cannot provide conclusive proof, but I believe that by pointing to certain historical events I can make clear the connection between this view of history and caesarism...

...a pseudo-democratic theory'of identification, above all in the writings of the leaguist preachers and Jesuits...

...and therefore ascribed the distress of France ex clusively to their` religious opponents, -conjectured (partly justifiably) that 'these opponents represented a great and sinister conspiracy, developed, or employed theories of caesaristic identification, and consistently proceeded to extirpate the -opponent wherever opportunity offered...

...On the one hand, the history of man is the history of his emergence from the primal horde and of his progressive individualization...

...that is, when potential anxiety can be activated in such a manner that it can becomes a cruel weapon in the hands of irresponsible leaders...

...a' movement which really has the realization of the freedom Of s ian as its goal...

...Thus he refuses to take account of the inevitability of the social process and—as in Germany before 1933— becomes the :social stratum most susceptible to caesarism...

...2) Neurotic, persecutory anxiety can lead to ego-surrender in the mass through affective identification with a leader...

...Thus he had to fall...

...It is thus necessary to make distinctions...

...But this judgment is valid only for the libido-charged, i.e., affective, identification of an individual in a mass with a leader...

...This is how I see the connection between anxiety and guilt in a totally repressive society...

...to regain an entrance to the city whence they were violently expelled...

...the division of labor as well as the, hierarchical organization of labor have shown a steady rise since the industrial revolution of the 18th century...

...The three methods are: terror, propaganda, and, for the followers of the leader, the crime committed in common...

...In fact, behind the mask of competition, which is supposed to have no destructive effects when it rationally organizes a society, there hide relations of dependence which make up reality...

...This affective identification with a leader is facilitated by the view of •history of false concreteness, the theory of conspiracy...

...The elements of political alienation must be added...

...They have gathered the mangled remnants of the state in the caverns and abominable retreats of bandits...

...The techniques are familiar: propaganda and terror—i.e., the in...

...But the masses of Rome expected that he would act in accordance with the conspiratorial view of history...

...It is my contention that persecutory anxiety—but one that has a real basis—is produced when a group is threatened in its prestige, income or its existence...

...This leads us to the analysis of the historical situations in which anxiety grips the masses...

...The view of history of Cola and of the Roman people was quite simple: Rome has been ruined by feudal lords...

...But this is a thoroughly ambivalent element: for it is precisely the crucifixion of Christ which makes possible the salvation of Christians (and all men) ; and the spiritually Semitic origin of Christianity is acknowledged by the Church...

...The extraordinary difficulty in the comprehension of group-psychological phenomena lies first of all in our own prejudices...

...Just as the masses hope for their deliverance from distress through absolute oneness with a person, so they ascribe their distress to certain persons, who have brought this distress into the world through a conspiracy...

...I assume that his story is familiar—the rise of the hack lawyer, son of a Roman innkeeper and a washerwoman, to Tribune ofthe Roman people .and dictator of Rome, his expulsion and return with the aid of the Church, and his assassination by the Colonna family in the year 1354...

...If one examines the Spartan example, Stavrogin's advice, the Fehme-murders, and the collective crimes of the SS, one may perhaps undertake the following psychological analysis: There are anxiety and an unconscious feeling of guilt...

...It may be called the conspiracy theory of history, a theory of history characterized by a false concreteness...

...aristocracy, on the moderation of the aristocrats...

...While this new middle class does labor which—to remain with the language of German psychology of labor—is "more de-souled" than that of tb ,industrial worker, and although his average income probably lies below that of...

...for the experiences of the last decades have instilled in us all more or less strong prejudices against the masses, and we associate with "masses" the epithet "mob"—a group of men who are capable of every atrocity...

...But if the Protocols represent a forgery, and if the plans for a Jewish world conspiracy belong in the realm of mythology, where then does that kernel of truth lie which according to my view is necessary to make possible the influence which antisemitism and the Protocols have had...

...of France, only as a religious, problem...

...Even now they are prowling _restlessly around, endeavoring through fraud and deceit...

...over come through ego-surren*r...

...The psychological stratum remains no matter what social institutions man lives 139 in, creating potential...

...Guise "a detestable monster," whose aim it was to ruin France, to assassinate , the King, and to conspire with the aid of the women near the king and: the High Constable of France against "the crown of France, the goods of widows and orphans, the blood of the poor and innocent...

...But the leader himself must feel no anxiety or at least must not show it...

...For identification with organizations (church, army) is not always libidinally charged...

...Thus Bodin has certain justification in calling his theory a theory of the constitutional state (droit gouvernement) despite his absolutism...

...The connection between caesarism and this view of history is quite evident...

...and the Parisian uprising, will "find there all the elements which 'I consider decisive: appeal' 'to anxiety, personification of evils, first with Henry III, then with Henry of Navarre, identification of the masses with Henry of Guise...

...an identification which becomes of decisive significance particularly in an anxiety situation...

...we knowe to be the onlie occasion of all these miseries...

...Surely there are examples of this—Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Wallenstein, Napoleon...

...democracy, on virtue (i.e., with him, patriotism) ; but tyranny, on fear...

...6) The regressive mass movement, once it has come to power must, in order to maintain the leader-identification, institutionalize anxiety...

...This psychological process operated in the so-called "old middle class" of Germany before 1933...