A REPORT ON ASIAN SOCIALISM

...And if you permit a company to take its profits out of the country that cuts down the amount of capital available for further development...

...But time is widening this gap and will continue to do so...

...Mehta’s industrialization program also begins with land reform...

...The Socialists learned their lesson of collaboration with Stalinism in this period and have broken irrevocably wtih “popular frontism...

...Where the Communists receive millions from outside, Maleki has to scrounge for pennies...

...All one can say is that it is driven by the whole historical development of Asia to something different from the traditional Socialism we have known in the West...

...Whether it achieves its goal, whether i t has the consistency, militancy, or forthrightness to win the masses towards itself remains to be seen...

...A Druse feudal lord (the Druse are a religious sect and people of Mohammedan origin) he is the leader of the Progressive Socialist Party, with some 15,000 or 20,000 members...

...If the country saves 5 per cent of its income annuallyabout a billion dollars-and invests it in industry it hardly makes a dent in the problem...

...Whether it can work on a large scale remains to be seen, but at least it is one answer to a perplexing problem that offers no easy solution...

...A host of historical circumstances makes this so...

...Seventy per cent of the population lives on the land, with approximately one acre per person...

...When Mossadegh banished the Shah, the Stalinists used this as a pretext to build their own force...

...A REPORT ON ASIAN SOCIALISM Sidney Lens Socialism in Asia emerged after, rather than before, Communism...

...I once asked the Iranian religious leader, Ayatollah Kashani, what was his political credo, and he answered without hesitation that he was a Socialist...

...But such things are impossible in India, or China, or other Asian countries-without an enormous cost in human lives, There are some 90 million Indians unemployed or under-employed...

...it can not concentrate on ever larger factories, It can not follow the American or the Russian pattern...

...59 Winter 1955 DISSENT Had he received support from America he could have defeated both feudalism and Stalinism...

...The problem of independence therefore soon resolves itself for Asian Socialism into a two-sided or three-sided fight...

...If you were to move just ten million peasants to the cities that would require an investment in factories of about $25 billion-which happens to be just 25 years of the total savings of the Indian nation...

...It is no accident that the Rangoon Socialist Conference is loath to join forces with European Socialists of the Second International...

...Western60 * DISSENT * Winter 1965 ers forget that machine farming is ‘more productive only in terms cf ?nan-hours of labor...

...In the midst of civil war Kyaw Nyein and Ba Swe have permitted full democracy: even the Stalinists have a legal party in Rangoon...

...They concentrated instead on alleviating the plight of the peasant while earning enough foreign currency to be used later for industrialization...

...Hence unsophisticated nationalists turn easily in its direction...

...For Asiatic Socialism the problem of democratic industrialization is uppermost...

...Today the Burmese capital fund consists of more than a quarter of a billion dollars in foreign valuta alone, and the 8-year plan to lay the groundwork for industrialization has a firm underpinning...

...In September 1952 he led a revolt against the feudal regime which was successful...

...But the old man, opposed to feudalism, did not want to replace it with Stalinism...

...Until only a few years ago the Socialists in India were part of the Gandhian Congress...

...It is a Socialism exposed to new problems, searching for new beginnings...

...In India, for example, the Socialists, while they were in the Congress Party back in the thirties, had formed a bloc with the Communists, but they soon found the Communists trying to take over their organization and were disgusted with Stalinist policy shifts...

...So long as the national revolution is not completed, Socialism and nationalism will go together, and many of the members of one-perhaps most-will consider themselves supporters of the other...

...It is the problem for all Asia, the reason why Asian Socialism is so different from European Socialism...

...they are alien to its whole doctrine...

...If the people are made to eat less so that exports can rise they will be resentful and fight back...

...Most Asian Socialists feel that even Bevanism is too tepid...

...The revolution came first to a country in the twilight zone between feudaiism and capitalism, to an underdeveloped area where the order of tlusiness was clearly the national, rather than the socialist, revolution...

...He is forced into collectives where the governemnt can keep its eye on him, can prevent him from hiding his surplus grain and slaughtering his cattle...

...After all, it took several decades for Westerners to understand a similar phenomenon in Russia...

...Socialism in Europe is “Second Forcist”-allied with America though critical to some extent...

...I t must utilize that manpower with the smallest investment of capital per worker possible...

...The problem now is effective production and equitable distribution, with European Socialism concentrating more and more on palliatives, such as welfarism, in the hopes of accomplishing more equitable distribution...

...But machine farming is less productive per acre of farm...

...It is synonymous in this context with what is often referred to as a “third camp,” but I did ndt adopt the latter term only because the “camp” is not yet truly organized...

...Lenin, with his un-doctrinaire astuteness, clearly understood the value of a Communist movement in Asia...

...Burma is the only real Socialist state in Asia, but Burma is a small nation of 17 million people, harassed by continuing civil war and trying desperately to complete its 8-year plan...

...That capital must be gained by export of grain or by exploitation of natural resources...

...Mao and his group are traveling the Stalinist path as far as industrialization is concerned and will undoubtedlyunless they change the present course-sacrifice more people in behalf of rapid industrialization than even Stalin...

...and the neglected continent, despite its imperialist trimmings, is a sluggish mass of feudalism...

...Asia is too poor to be able to afford welfarism...

...The state, i f it invests in electrification, flood control, irrigation, dams, will supply more land to the peasants and will offer electricity for small-scale industries in the villages-textiles, metal-fabricating, housing, and many others...

...The fact may seem trivial, but it has a decided significance...

...But each of these is a blow to industrialization of any “backward” country...

...He called the army out, but it refused to obey his will...

...Nationalism was defeated and Iran remains a colony in all but name...

...Unless there is a rapid increase in consumer demand there will be little impetus for further industrialization...

...But there has been a pathetic paucity of material on how to build Socialism itself...

...Both powers actually occupied the country...

...But Asia is feudal, painfully underdeveloped...

...He accepted Stalinist support when threatened from the right-the Shah and his feudal coterie-but always insisted on a non-Stalinist government, always kept the Communists in a limited position carefully circumscribed by what he thought was a reliable army...

...The East, he says, can not industrialize like the West...

...But Britain used its billions from Iran to develop Britain, not Iran...

...T o make such super-profits they must have the cooperation of the government to: 1-Exploit labor...

...PROBABLY THE KEENEST THINKER on this subject is the former secretary of the Praja Socialist Party in India, Asoka Mehta...

...It can not industrialize at the expense of the people...

...And he is made to yield a certain amount-“according to plan” -no matter how his family fares, whether it starves or not...

...And here Asian Socialism finds the basis for its “peculiar” political role as a Third Force...

...M. N. Roy in India and Ch’en Tu-hsui in China fashioned Communist Parties in the image of Lenin...

...two or three times that much in a heavy industry factory like steel...

...It can propose that private capital be invited from abroad...

...The Socialists at this point were much impressed with Than Tun and with Russia, because they thought of the Soviets as the only white nation that was not imperialist...

...In India or in China there is no such surplus...

...Here the Socialist Party, led by two capable young men, Kyaw Nyein and Ba Swe, is the hub of the government...

...This was undoubtedly an improvement over the past when he paid 40 to 60 per cent of his yield to a landlord...

...second, to develop the economy so that the pathetic living standards can be quickly raised...

...But in Asia this is the cornerstone of all politics-how to industrialize...

...they were welcomed and sent home to build the kind of movement the Second International had long neglected...

...Mehta’s plan for industrializing the underdeveloped areas seeks to avoid precisely such pitfalls...

...But during World War I1 Britain had to divide the country with Soviet Russia for certain strategic reasons...

...Tudeh shouted for independence, it cursed the British, and hit a resonant chord...

...There must be a railroad siding, sewers, water, roads, intelligent laborers who can read blueprints, trained supervisory personnel...

...Asian Socialism starts with two big advantages...

...Total national income for the country is only $19 billion annually-about $50 per person, a dollar a week...

...In outlook, age, vigor, and principle the socialist movements of each half of the world differ sharply...

...The logic of its position, the nature of its enemy, impels it in other directions than those of the two main power blocs...

...That is not to say that the transplantation was then unnecessary or undesirable, yet Communism wus transplanted and socialism not...

...History and circumstance have conspired to make Asiatic Socialism a Third Force, and third forcism-the effort to find a path between capitalism and Stalinism-is in fact its underlying motif...

...But they lack capital...

...Traditionally the development of all countries occurs with the increase of yield on the farms and the consequent national savings which are converted to capital...

...Socialism in Iran is thus caught in the meat-grinder of the power struggle, hindered in its nationalist goal by the machinations of the oil empires, fearful of a Stalinist revolution that will substitute for a true national-socialist one...

...His pamphlet “Socialism and Peasantry” is a classic of contemporary Socialist literature.+ Western Socialism and other leftist tendencies have devoted a vast proportion of their literature to the negative side of radicalismattacks on capitalism, on other leftist tendencies, polemics of one kind or another...

...But when a peasant gets his own tiny piece of land and has a greater amount of grain left a t the end of the year, he will not automatically save and put his savings into a bank...

...Both its origin and mison &&re were different from those of Stalinism on the one hand and nationalism on the other...

...For instance, how shall Socialism achieve national independence without simultaneously pushing the Communists in to power...

...its officers had already made a deal with the West...

...I t can not shift tens of millions of peasants to city factories...

...For more than a hundred years these forces have been buttressed by imperialism...

...Only when nationalism achieved its goal of independence, or was on the verge of doing so, did Socialism assert its political independence...

...It maintains a small staff and publishes a monthly magazine...

...Thus where the Communist parties in Asia are three decades old, independent Socialist parties are, for the most part, less than a decade old, and where Communism is pro-Moscow, Socialism is essentially “Third Forcist...

...The surplus labor will thus be absorbed with a minimum of capital investment...

...So long as the West refuses to aid genuine national revolutions it forces the leftist groups in Asia either to turn to Moscow or act as a Third Force...

...it is ceaselessly warding off the blows of both power blocs, seemingly floating in mid-air without any moorings-a Third Force that is third but not very forceful...

...the Communist method of cutting living standards to pay for industrialization is reversed...

...But the errors and weaknesses of Asian DISSENT 63 Winter 1955 Socialism, unlike those of European Socialism are the errors and weaknesses of youth, not of senility...

...Today Asian Socialism prefers the latter...

...If Iran, for instance, had forced Britain to reinvest in Iran its billions in oil profits, the country would long ago have been modernized...

...and certainly not of Stalin...

...But the Marxian time-table was decidedly in error...

...Djumblatt meanwhile is building a Socialist Party along modern lines, with newspapers, party meetings, democratic expression, even “doorbell ringing” in the villages...

...To invite foreign capital to an underdeveloped country-even if that capital were willing, which it is ordinarily not-would only compound difficulties...

...They insisted that true independence could be wrested only by force...

...During the war when Gandhi and the Socialists demanded that Britain.“quit India” as a precondition to aiding the war effort, the Stalinists were released from jail by the British so they could organize full support for the hated foreign power...

...But how does such land reform help industrialization...

...and in most places it has a healthy hostility to Stalinism...

...And in this economic sphere as well as in other fields of politics and international relations, Asian Socialism must practice a third way-neither capitalist nor Stalinist...

...Left to its own devices feudalism in Asia would have disintegrated perhaps a century ago...

...Later he broke with him and the conflict will undoubtedly continue...

...Without help from the outside, Socialism faces an overwhelming job in seeking full independence...

...Nationalism, which had sought American support and had been pushed by the logic of events into a Third Force role, was eventually defeated...

...And of that only two-thirds is actually cultivated...

...So long as western powers-as in Indo-China or Iran-insist on resisting nationalism, the only seemingly powerful ally on a world scale is Russia...

...the city workers won’t be fed as well and the state won’t have the surplus to export abroad in return for machinery...

...They called demonstrations in support of Mossadegh...

...Thus Stalinism, with its sustenance from abroad-both moral and material-became a force in Asia second only to nationalism...

...This then is the make-up of Asian Socialism: with the exception of Israel and Japan it is concerned with destroying feudalism and imperialism, and with developing a modern industrial economy...

...It takes some $2,500 in machinery to keep a worker employed in a modern light industry factory...

...Nationalism and Socialism were for him an inevitable combination . The same is true in countries like Iraq or Lebanon or Egypt...

...It is safe to say that no country will ever be industrialized by depending primarily on loreign private capital...

...But consider a country like India...

...Probably the biggest success story in Asian Socialism is in Burma...

...Only here and there is the idea of Socialism in industry analyzed or put into practice...

...And Lenin, having led such a combined revolution in Russia, was keenly aware of its potential in Asia...

...Europe is capitalist, highly developed...

...Each is capable of brilliant innovation...

...When it was finally gained without war Than Tun denounced some of the points in the agreement with Britain and plunged the country into civil war...

...hence low wages are a deterrent to industrializing a country with private capital...

...On the one hand it has to fight both its own feudal classes and the imperialist powers which help those feudal classes, and on the other it has to resist the natural attractiveness of Communist China which has succeeded in destroying feudalism...

...He too is for dividing the land and he is critical of the snail’s pace at which it is currently being done in India...

...In 1952 it organized its own Asian Socialist Conference, significantly quartered in Rangoon, Burma...

...The Kremlin lays down no conditions in the fight against feudalism: it is for its complete, immediate, and thorough destruction...

...Every young western radical assumes . that A section the process of this work is almost will appear automatic-destroy in the next issue capitalism of DISSENT...

...While it has maintained fraternal relations with European Socialism it has adopted a stand-offish attitude towards merger with the Second International...

...Subsequently these men quit or were removed from Party leadership...

...Industrialization is already a fact in Europe, land reform is-ˆor the most part-long ago accomplished...

...Asians flocked to the Third International...

...At the outset the Communists controlled the unions, the peasant organization and much of the army...

...But when the Communists began their traditional drive to power it alienated the Socialists...

...And ten million hardly makes a dent in the unemployed or underemployed...

...If it cannot force the peasant to deliver more grain to the city...

...Americans picture the industrialization of Asia in terms of American industrialization...

...He therefore installed a nationalist named Chamoun into the presidency...

...Thus i t must rely on using it where it now is, in small co-operative factories rather than in large-scale ventures in the big cities...

...Imperialism saved Asian feudalism: of that there can be no doubt...

...But this hardly is a solution...

...Here too Socialism has decisively defeated Stalinism, and has done it by progressive means...

...They confront different enemies and different historical tasks...

...At that point he could have installed the Socialists in power, but he felt that Socialism needed a more solid base before it could take the helm...

...But equal division merely meant that each peasant had a half-acre or thereahaim for each member of his family...

...For while Communism was a transplantation from Europe, carefully nurtured by Lenin, Socialism evolved as part of the normal process of national revolution...

...production can improve at the expense of the masses, rather than accrue to their benefit...

...Here SocialWinter 1955 * DISSENT . 57 ism demands basic structural changes in social life...

...The ruling classes of Asia, the sheikhs, pashas, effendi, zamindars, rajas and other assorted members of the landlord class, are corrupt, helpless, and hopeless...

...Of these Khalil Maleki’s group has the most promise...

...Socialism in Asia is definitely “Third Forcist”-allied with neither bloc, trying to forge one of its own, and Third Forcist internally as well...

...Thus independent socialism in Asia faces no simple task...

...There Socialism is old and moderate, concentrating more on welfarism than basic structural changes...

...It led parties and revolutions, while Socialism remained merely a wing of the nationalist movement, an embryo waiting for the national revolution to triumph before it could be born...

...2-Take profits out of the countiy...

...Instead of the mechanical land reform and typical Stalinist brutalities in the villages, the Socialists instituted more sensible reforms-lowering the rents to $8 an acre (which usually were not paid because the landlords had fled), securing of land tenure, granting of credits, abolition of the money lenders, organization of co-ops, and democratic mutual aid teams...

...It is a tribute to the insight of Mahatma Gandhi that he understood this inexorable process and before his death urged that the Congress Party be dissolved and that each of its component forces-including the Socialists-then be free to form their own parties...

...Although less than a decade old Asian Socialism is thus taking on both organizational and political form...

...The Socialists argued correctly that in the midst of civil war, without fertilizer plants and other necessary preconditions for large-scale farming, it 64 Winter 1955 DISSENT was an idle gesture to divide the land arbitrarily...

...Asian Socialism is not the Socialism of Marx, because all his life Marx concerned himself primarily with the evils of capitalism...

...you send in money, technicians, supplies and there you are...

...All of India, for ‘instance, has only 424 million usable acres of land-in a nation of some 363 million people...

...What is more, the state in each such country would have to invest five or ten times as much in social improvements and public works before private companies could be lured in on a big scale...

...56 Winter 1955 DISSENT Socialism in Asia came into being at the propitious historical moment, during the last decade, when the hold of imperialism had been weakened, when independence was in the offing, when the united bloc of bourgeois, peasant, worker and intellectual which had worked for independence now had to look to new horizons-and new schisms...

...I n the long run this problem will perhaps be solved...

...In fact th.:t has been the crime of imperialism: that it has withdrawn surpluses from the countries where it earned them instead of reinvesting them to develop the underdeveloped areas...

...Burma typifies the stresses and strains between Asian Socialism and Asian Communism...

...But after land reform must come a large scale co-operative movement and power-driven village industries...

...Later the British, under the guise of aiding a national revolution, put their foot in the door and eventually replaced Russia as the dominant power...

...Opposed to both the Communists and the British, Mossadegh had no choice but to play all ends against the middle...

...Mehta’s approach has been tried out on a limited scale in such cooperative ventures as Faridabad, and with conspicuous success...

...For each dollar that the private entrepreneur invests in factories the state must invest many dollars for railroads, surface roacls, schools...

...and production Winter 1955 62 DISSENT must improve and consumption increase...

...Britain was willing to give up Burma, but the Communists were swinging from “softness” to “toughness” and they didn’t want independence with even minor strings attached...

...And since it can hardly depend on substantial gifts from America or other Western countries it has had to work out new approaches...

...In Iraq there is a left Socialist party led by Jaderjy, which also considers itself “nationalist,” and a nationalist party which considers itself “Socialist...

...It is not the Communism of Lcnin or Trotsky...

...If you have plenty of land available a man-hour of labor, using a tractor, will produce many times as much as a manhour of labor with hand tools...

...But the heavy hand of the European powers halted that development, strengthened the feudal classes of Asia and Africa and doomed the backward continents to further backwardness...

...The solution to the problem of industrialization in underdeveloped countries is definitely not a simple one...

...Usually (Indo-China is an exception) the Socialists are fairly close to the Communists to begin with...

...Until the turn of the century Iran was a satellite of Czarist Russia...

...In this way the standard of living of the Indian people can improve even while industrialization is gaining a foothold...

...At this juncture a militant nationalist named Mossadegh took the reigns of government, expropriated the British oil interests and captured the imagination of the Iranian people...

...But now that this partnership is coming to an end, where shall Asian nationalism, with its Socialist allies, turn...

...On the other hand it is neither anti-Marx, nor anti-Trotsky...

...Even if the amount could be tripled by reclamation and irrigation it would still be only three or four acres per person, or perhaps ten or fifteen per family-hardly enough for machine farming...

...I n turn feudalism preserved the profits of imperialism...

...It has 550,000 villages, most of them inaccessible in the rainy season even by jeep...

...I use the term “third force” throughout, not in the sense of another, third, pow@ bloc, hut as a third social and politiral group...

...Maleki himself is an ex8talinist who knows what the problem is, but he lacks the resources to challenge the Communists for the allegiance of the masses...

...The Communists are thoroughly isolated, control not an inch of territory on a permanent basis and are reduced to mere dacoib-robbers, Socialism has shown, on this one small testing ground, that it is far superior to Stalinist totalitarianism...

...It is yet too early to assess its course, or to predict its future...

...But Asian Socialism can not use such police measures...

...Consider, for instance, the plight of Socialists in Iran...

...Superficially it sounds simple...

...He felt that it was first necessary to educate the peasants in the villages...

...Unfortunately this thesis has been proven to be wrong by the example of Russia...

...Since they became an independent party after the war they have become a polarizing force, drawing to them the Kripalani left Congressites, Trotskyists and a whole assortment of nonBtalinists leftists-but they eschew Stalinism completely...

...A skilled Japanese farmer, using hand labor, can produce more rice per acre of land than an American farmer with his tractor, Large-scale machine farming is feasible only where there is a surplus of land...

...By the end of the war the Anti-Fascist-People’s-Freedom-League, which had led the struggle for independence, had a Communist secretary, Thakin Than Tun...

...Gandhi’s advice was not heeded by Nehru but events forced a schism between nationalism and Socialism nonetheless...

...After independence comes the task of economic development: here the lines branch off...

...Britain coasted along with its old imperialist tactics, while Russia quietly built up its Tudeh-MassesParty...

...In the low state of the Asian revolution this intermingling of philosophies is not hard to understand...

...hence its outlook and perspectives vary considerably from those of either the British Labor Party or Nenni’s party in Italy...

...The history of the 19th century is replete with national revolutions in China, Egypt, Iran, India and elsewhere which the western powers were seemingly trying to help but: which always ended in the reinvestment of the feudal forces-only this time with the stronger military backing of Britain, France, Holland, sometimes America...

...That schism is not sharp or thorough, in fact there is a considerable overlapping...

...If it were not for the sour experiences 58 Winter 1955 DISSENT that the Indian Socialists had with Stalinism prior to and during the war, Stalinism would be an even greater polarizing force...

...Kemal Djumblatt of Lebanon, for example, is certainly one of the most colorful men in the world...

...But for the average Asian they have performed a worthwhile task in liquidating Chinese feudalism and it will be years, perhaps decades, before Asia fully understands the other side of Chinese Stalinism-its totalitarian character...

...The gap in foreign policy and outlook between the two is too great to be bridged at present...

...But as if to prove my point he hastily added “I am the George Washington of Iran...

...a Socialism which recognizes the overriding necessity for peace if it is to compress a few centuries into a few decades in its attempt to bridge the gap between western industrialism and its own underdevelopment...

...But simple as these tasks sound they pose enormous difficulties...

...That is precisely what happens in the Communist countries, where the rate of development is far beyond the natural abilities of the nation and where the emphasis is on non-consumer goods rather than consumer goods...

...How then can the state benefit from land reform...

...it has a long lmg way to go before it reaches this stage...

...Furthermore, if you were to move machinery into the farm areas you would probably be cutting down the yield of grain...

...Yet Burmese Socialism, quick to reorganize and very capable in pragmatic maneuvering, immunized the minds of the Burmese people against the Stalinists...

...T o industrialize in the American manner, or the Russian, would mean to mechanize the farms, build thousands of factories, transfer the surplus farm population to the cities...

...But unlike pro-Western or proSoviet movements, it lacks the meat and marrow of a powerful state behind it...

...On the other hand the Communist road to industrialization is equally unfeasible for Asian Socialism...

...First of all private entrepreneurs will not send capital to underdeveloped countries unless they are assured of a greater profit than at home...

...Like it or not, unless and until the West joins the Asian revolution wholeheartedly and without reservation, nationalism and Socialism in Asia must inevitably cope with the magnetic attraction of Stalinism...

...it is a “force” uspiring to be an organized and significant world grouping-camp...

...Others took over where they had left off, aided by Stalin rather than Lenin...

...It is a Socialism which must be international because of its economic dependence on the rest of the world...

...I n Stalinist countries this problem is solved simply-the state uses police measures to make the peasant eat less and give up more...

...There are few pls.ces in Marxian literature which even hint at the difficulties...

...Men like Kyaw Nyein of Burma, Kemal Djumblatt in Lebanon, Sjahrir in Indonesia, Mehta, Madhu Limaye, Lohia in India are all men of stature...

...There must of course be some such development, but it should be limited...

...That in itself is worth watching...

...On the contrary he will begin by consuming more, by taking care of some of his accumulated needs...

...I n China, for instance, the Conimunist land reform consisted of equal division of land...

...65 Winter 1955 DISSENT...

...But Britain, with American collaboration, maneuvered the feudal forces back into power...

...There are several Socialist groups in Iran: the Iran Party, the religious Socialists, Khalil Maleki’s Third Force and others...

...If it accepts the old methods it has a choice between the Communist way on the one hand and the “free enterprise” way on the other...

...But assuming that the Asiatic world will soon secure true independence, there still remains the second task: how to develop an underdeveloped country...

...Socialism emerged without any outside help, particularly without help from European Socialism...

...There are some nations which have a surplus of land, like Burma...

...It has some truly “big” men in leadership roles...

...In the traditional Marxian blueprint the revolution was to come first in the advanced capitalist countries like Britain, America, Germany, where the forces of production were already far advanced and presumably could glide easily into Socialism...

...To put up a factory in an underdeveloped 61 Winter 1955 DISSENT area requires not just four walls and machineiy...

...and in most places it started-although didn’t finish-on quite friendly terms with Stalinism...

...Tudeh stirred the peasants who wanted land, the intellectuals who had watched their country robbed of the fruits of Abadan’s oil, the workers who lived abysmally...

...The unemployed and underemployed must be absorbed mostly in the villages, rather than taken out to the cities...

...Then they are repelled by Stalinist totalitarianism to the point where they cut their ties and usually cut them decisively...

...India, like Japan in the past, is pathetically short of capital but long on manpower...

...it must approximate rather the Japanese pattern-but with democracy...

...ASIATIC SOCIALISM IS CONFRONTED with two main tasks:-first, to achieve independence...