THE CORRUPTIONS OF SCIENCE

...For an example of this question-begging approach see R. A. Brightsen, "The Way to Save Nuclear Power," Fortune, September 10, 1979, pp...

...One physicist, Earl Callen, foresees the possibility that such a "science court will establish once and for all that the sun revolves around the earth...

...The committee was then investigating the problem of food additives, in particular, monosodium glutamate (MSG...

...Such chutzpah led Senator Percy to exclaim: "Here is the same person acting as judge and jury...

...See, for example, Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977...

...Liberal-democratic governments, however, operating in a relatively open society, are usually unable egregiously to abuse the scientific instrument...

...The head of CIIT is quoted as saying, "I don't think that there is anywhere else such a concentration of toxicologists...

...946-52...

...The panel duly turned in a report that "confirmed the high degree of safety" of the additives...

...In one recent court battle over OSHA chemical spill guidelines, the presiding judge expressed his knowledge of such regulations and, to prove it, held up his pesticide applicator registration card...

...To base a public educational policy on the data of Arthur Jensen, for example, whose theory on educability of group differences is described as "neither trivial nor compelling," would be an affront to both science and humanity.23 This is by no means to say that agreement on values and morality, agreement on the goals of a society, is easy to achieve or that science can contribute nothing to the resolution of value disputes...

...Research is now an industry and the scientist is one of the workers...

...23-29, February 26, 1979, p. 6. See also the acute commentary in the New Yorker, December 18, 1978, pp...

...they are also only workers, subject to the imperatives of impersonal market and bureaucratic organizations...

...Cigarette companies have their Tobacco Institute...

...The late Dr...

...George Wald's suggestion that when equally qualified scientists differ one opts for the position of those scientists with no vested interests at stake is wise but of limited application...

...Utilities have their Electric Power Research Institute...

...Rather, awareness of its all-toohuman deficiencies will allow citizens to understand that science alone can never and ought never to be the sole basis for important social decisions...

...1166-67, and Chemical and Engineering News, February 12, 1979, pp...

...Cyril Comar's statement, "Bad Science and Social Penalties," Science, June 16, 1978, p. 1125...

...Epstein's observation was offered before the Select (Senate) Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs...

...22 See Stephen Jay Gould, "Morton's Ranking of Races by Cranial Capacity," Science, May 5, 1978, pp...

...The lesson seems hard to learn...

...C, p. 2. 9 See R. Jeffrey Smith, "Creative Penmanship in Animal Testing Prompts FDA Controls," Science, December 23, 1977, pp...

...The director of scientific research for Dow's Michigan Division was quoted as saying, "We now think dioxins have been with us [as trace chemicals] since the advent of fire...

...23 See the review of Jensen's book by Carten Denniston in Science, January 17, 1975, pp...

...In 1972 Dow Chemical scientists, finding that one of the company's herbicides, 2,4-D, caused congenital malformation of the fetuses of laboratory rats, in other words, was "teratogenic," simply redefined teratogenesis in such a way as to exclude from that definition the abnormalities their herbicide caused...

...As cancer researchers could not (and still cannot) provide unequivocal guidance, decision-makers must make their own judgments, which inevitably will be shaped by the political and economic context in which they are made...

...Science, the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, reported recently that the chemical industry has created a new research arm, the Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology (CIIT...

...We will more readily see that powerful economic and political interests most often determine such decisions, using "science" whenever possible as a crutch or a cover.21 What is perhaps most necessary is a recognition that the natural and social sciences are theoretical and not practical exercises...

...The legal, as opposed to "scientific," weapons available to industry are quite another story...

...A social policy that draws upon science but is based upon a democratically formed consensus on, for instance, the belief in the equality and essential humanity of all human beings, may not succeed in attaining desired goals...

...In any case, a private organization, the National Commission on Research, now exists to "examine the means by which federal support of university research is conducted and propose changes to improve this system...

...More bluntly he added: "Any way a laboratory can save a buck, it will attempt to do it, and sometimes at the consumer's expense" (emphasis added...

...It is fatuous to believe that an ideal scientific method is sufficient to protect men and women against common human frailties...

...The Callen quotation is from his letter on the science court to Science, September 10, 1976, pp...

...What most of us tend to forget is that "science" is a neutral instrument, usable by any human agency for its own purposes...

...Almost by accident, the agency uncovered "evidence of massive deficiencies in scientific data that were crucialfor the approval of hundreds of chemicals and drugs now used in the United States" (emphasis added...

...Citizens in a liberal democracy must pay particular regard to these matters...

...25 D. J. Gamble, "The Berger Inquiry: An Impact Assessment Process," Science, March 3, 1978, pp...

...In 1977, two of [the firm's] wholly owned subsidiaries received $94 million worth of consulting fees from the very utilities whose interests are affected by this program...

...Nor did they hint that scientists doing research on chemical toxicity might have their perceptions altered or their priorities affected by the fact that they draw their salaries and take their assignments from the chemical industry...

...7-8...

...16 Drawing attention to these institutes and their stated objectives is by no means to impute venality, corruption, or deceit to scientists...

...Manufacturers have, among other groups, the American Industrial Health Council, designed "to combat stiff new rules proposed by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to govern carcinogens...

...We have a toxic-chemicals problem of terrible magnitude, and we must now train armies of toxicologists and analytical chemists to deal with the essentially unregulated outcome of our entrancement with that chemistry...

...Andrew Ure wrote in 1835 that "when capitalism enlists science into her service, the refractory hand of labor will always be taught docility...

...6 Today the name of science is often invoked by narrow special interests as a cover, a distraction, or an evasion tactic...

...The problem is much more complex and rooted in the bureaucratic, narrowly defined, highly specialized, and alienating nature of a modern society's working conditions...

...We are still dependent upon the experts, and our task is made no easier when they themselves differ sharply...

...We all know that modern society depends upon science...

...Recognizing the different imperatives stemming from scientific evidence and from moral values does not solve the problem of actively and effectively engaging laymen in decision200 making...

...Last January, six scientists resigned from the "Council for Agricultural Science and Technology" (CAST...

...That inquiry into the social, economic, and environmental impact of a massive pipeline complex was conducted with citizen participation that increased as the inquiry proceeded...

...An industrialist interviewing a newly hired scientist says, "We want you to do some pure disinterested fundamental research into something immensely profitable...

...For it bears repeating that implementation with citizens' participation and final authority is both necessary and beneficial...

...8 Such a proposal underrates the nonscientific imperatives that affect all scientists but especially those who work under the pressures of "productivity" and profit maximization...

...It is also quite feasible, as the results of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline (Berger) Inquiry show...

...Further, the agency is critical of the analytical techniques Dow used to determine dioxin levels in the environment...

...This situation helps explain the often tense relations that develop between university-based scientists and their counterparts in industry...

...197 Among scientists there is a reluctance to admit the possibility that "scientific objectivity" can be impaired by so mundane a consideration as who pays one's salary...

...580-85...

...Cyril Comar, whose career encompassed both university and corporate scientific research, noted the deplorable situation: Professional procedures are being bypassed because of the needs of the times...

...William J. McGill has similarly argued that "science" ought not be sullied by legislative, political, or judicial interference, and that scientists themselves ("the best and most responsible members") should be primarily responsible for keeping their house in order...

...New York Times, January 1, 1979.] Under the circumstances, citizens may well conclude that any results drawn from CIIT research will have to be double-checked by other, differently motivated agencies...

...we see men (Madame Curie is the exception that proves the rule), usually in white coats (Madison Avenue has appropriated this vision), before whose authority and power we become as children' But scientists are indeed only human, subject, that is, to all human passions, failings, and temptations...

...The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals is an industry favorite...

...indeed, one of the five later testified before the committee as an expert for one of the food industry's lobbying organizations...

...Public relations is the motive...

...CIIT scientists keep in close touch with government-agency toxicologists (for instance, at the EPA) and several of them hold adjunct professorships at nearby universities...

...It announced that the presence of the extremely toxic chemical dioxin (TCCD) in the environment downstream from its plant at Midland, Michigan, was attributable not to the plant's production of the herbicide Agent Orange but to "natural causes," that is, "normal combustion processes that occur everywhere...

...But such centers are bright exceptions to the general rule of market-oriented research...

...21 See the analysis, by Richard D. Lyons, of the recent decision concerning saccharin, "Dissent on Saccharin Report," New York Times, March 5, 1979, p. 28...

...Regardless of his objectivity [sic!] and competence, it appears there is a conflict of interest here...

...Here are some examples...

...This is a chronic problem of which, however, people 199 are generally aware...

...The fact that science is an instrument that can serve many causes, and that scientists are subject to all the temptations of the world, the flesh, and the devil, is no cause for laymen to disparage the profession...

...In this controversy Dow was apparently attempting to establish that, as one of the company's scientists put it, "because dioxins are ubiquitous, we need not be concerned about them...

...A social policy, on the other hand, based upon "scientific" evidence—evidence, if it is not factitious to begin with, is always subject to refutation22 —may in fact do irreparable and unjustifiable damage to human beings and can never be morally justified...

...Aren't there enough scientists in the United States so we can select a panel that would be above reproach...

...Ernest Brisson, the FDA's associate director for compliance, reported "that the scientific integrity of some individuals and establishments engaged in research is open to question...

...is really about the authority of Science rather than about authority in general," New York Times Book Review, January 13, 1974, p. 3. 4 Letter, Science, November 10, 1978, p. 547...

...I owe this reference to Professor Charles Schwartz of U. C., Berkeley...

...24 Hammond and Adelman, in their article cited in note 20, offer a strong argument that "a scientifically, socially, and ethically defensible means for integrating science and human values can be achieved...

...408-409...

...202...

...3 In his review of Stanley Milgrim's book, Obedience to Authority (1974), Steven Marcus acutely observes that "Milgrim's book...

...He also noted that the council task force was almost entirely supported by industry, "especially the pharmaceutical industry," and he added that the 25-member task force was "heavily stacked (about 3 to 1) in favor of the industry position...

...17 It would be unfair to scientists to impute to them higher than ordinary moral capabilities and political courage...

...Perhaps the crucial factor, however, is that many scientists adhere to the high standards of their "communitas," the ideals of the scientific community that impel them to work, in Philip Siekevitz's words, "out of a sense of curiosity, excitement, and simply for scientific knowledge...

...I am grateful to Chandra Mutha for directing me to the material in Chemical and Engineering News...

...the recent decision by the EPA to ban the pesticide dieldrin as carcinogenic is an example...

...Given America's relatively open decisionmaking process, science often has been appropriated by powerful special interests and used for the narrow purpose of profit maximization, to protect a corporate image, or to confuse rather than clarify issues whose resolution requires the unprejudiced interpretation of scientific data...

...By that time, Karl Marx had written, "science had been taken onto the payroll...

...A report in Chemical and Engineering News notes that "in its preliminary evaluation of Dow's claim, EPA says that Dow has submitted no information other than purely circumstantial evidence to support its premise...

...Such scientists, devoted to the public interest, would provide a "countervailing power" for the public in the arena of scientific debate over vital social interests...

...8 Similarly, recent bitter experience has taught federal agencies such as the FDA to promulgate regulations that scientists have criticized because they "state what is obvious to any well-trained scientist or researchadministrator...

...area attempt to recruit researchers with the slogan, "Some organizations won't support an R and D program unless there's an immedite payoff...

...556-58 for discussion of another case in which the NSF was charged with failing to require policy papers "to meet even the most basic test of independence, objectivity, and merit...

...Even editorial reviews are tending to become less critical to avoid any appearance of suppression of controversial findings...

...Social decisions inevitably rest upon implicit or explicit values, upon the goals we seek as a society...

...26 See Fred Hapgood, "Risk-Benefit Analysis: Putting a Price on Life," Atlantic, March 1979, pp...

...The people and the projects in this trade are equally legion and obscure...

...At the request of the committee the National Academy of Sciences had assembled an MSG panel composed of seven scientists...

...6 Both quotations are in Karl Marx, Capital, vol...

...126-32, esp...

...See David Kotelchuck, "Asbestos-Science for Sale," Science For the People, September 1975, pp...

...117275...

...A, pp...

...7 "Dow Redefines Word It Doesn't Like," Science, April 21, 1972, p. 261...

...CAST, it turns out, has published and distributed over 70 task-force reports in the last seven years...

...Such an institute would be appropriate, it being axiomatic that all situations combining people and power require watchdogs...

...Environmental deterioration must be due to some fault in the human activities on the earth...

...We assume, rightly or wrongly, that lawyers and social scientists are 195 "subjective" and "ideological," but who ever spearks of "adversarial science" or "Marxist mathematics...

...Redefining words to suit the convenience of a special interest group can have untoward consequences —George Orwell wrote a book about them...

...27-28...

...It all 198 adds up to appointing the wolf to guard the sheep...

...8 New York Times, January 23, 1979, sec...

...The legal issue in that case concerns "reasonably necessary and appropriate" health standards but the API argued on "scientific" grounds that "no one has been able to show any cancer hazard from benzene exposure below 100 parts per million...

...the decision was made by the committee administering PSPS, a comparatively closed and little-known scheme whose parent department, MAFF, has close relations with industrial and agricultural interests...

...15 Oil and chemical companies have the American Petroleum Institute, whose most recent accomplishment was to persuade the U.S...

...But the necessary regulations have been blocked because chemical industry lawyers have filed more than 1,200 "comments" the EPA must by law consider and answer...

...13 Although the senator promised to hold hearings on this subject and although the National Academy of Sciences instituted some reforms in its panel-selection process, neither the public nor the senators, for that matter, have any assurances that such panels will be above reproach...

...Naval Laboratories of the Washington, D.C...

...We're different...

...5 Bendan Gillespie, Dave Ena, and Ron Johnson, "A Tale of Two Pesticides," New Scientist, February 9, 1978, pp...

...Under such circumstances, science remains necessary but not sufficient, and laymen-citizen responsibility, in effective institutional form, regains a primary position...

...The only palliatives I know are vigilance and scrutiny...

...In 1978, however, the Dow Chemical Company advanced precisely the argument Commoner thought impossible...

...In their resignations, they charged that the preliminary summary report of the task force misrepresented their own findings and changed the whole tone of their conclusions...

...Most of us share the prevalent "scientific" world view, and we all enjoy the benefits of our technological society...

...The journal New Scientist recently published a cartoon illustrating these imperatives...

...201 8-16...

...More evidence has recently emerged that shows how special interests can control and 196 manipulate supposed "objective" scientific studies...

...14 Every major industry in the country financially supports and is, in effect, represented by some sort of organization with "scientific credentials...

...Only later did the initially incredulous senators discover that five of the seven scientists on the panel had close financial or professional ties with the food industry...

...161-62...

...Perhaps the central point is to insure that information of all sorts, not merely "expert" information, is considered before any policy is decided upon and implemented...

...McGill's remarks are excerpted in Science, October 21, 1977, p. 275...

...4 The danger here does not come so much from government itself...

...1469-70...

...In the "value-based" policy, human beings are viewed as ends in themselves...

...The citizens' input has now been shown to be essential to an assessment process.25 At the very least, laymen will seek in this process to be as critical and analytical as scientists ideally are...

...In addition, political and regulatory pressures created by public concern often cannot await the inherently slow pace of scientific tradition...

...350-52...

...19 The commission also aims for the establishment of a system of federally supported scientific education designed to produce specialists willing to devote themselves to public service as a life-long career...

...What has this to do with "science and the citizen...

...In a splendidly mixed metaphor Winston Churchill warned us about that "neutral" aspect of science 40 years ago, as the scientifically based, technologically advanced Nazi war machine rained bombs upon England: "If we do not stand up to Hitler then the world will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of a perverted science...

...As one commentator put it recently...

...This distortion of assigned functions is perhaps most apparent in the history of the AEC-ERDA relationship to the nuclear power industry...

...1 ° The successful experience of Bell Labs and of the Hoffman-LaRoche Institute for Molecular Biology indicates that it is not impossible for a profit-making private concern to support basic research without regard to immediate market considerations...

...In contrast, scientists in Britain, where the pesticide was not banned, observed: One can speculate on the extent to which the "briefs" of the respective agencies influenced their adoption of an "appropriate" scientific framework...

...Also, much experimental work is becoming extremely difficult to confirm or refute—it may be large-scale, involve sophisticated techniques of experimentation and analysis, and be heavily computerized so that the original data are hard to obtain or the procedures difficult to check...

...250-51...

...See also Science, February 11, 1977, pp...

...Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals in New Orleans to overturn OSHA's workplace exposure limit for benzene, a chemical that has been linked to leukemia in industrial workers...

...For a different view of science and society and an effective argument in favor of "the application of knowledge of facts in new compassionate ways," see June Goodfield, "Humanity in Science: A Perspective and a Plea," Science, November 11, 1977, pp...

...However, the EPA's basic position on dioxincontaminated pesticides remains unchanged: "They pose a threat to human health...

...By contrast, in the U.K...

...Notes I Barry Commoner, The Closing Circle (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971), P. 122...

...Risk-benefit analysis," for example, will be utilized, but never in secrecy and at the expense of citizen participation...

...Times change and research is not what it was...

...Government-supported science can, of course, result in conflicts of interest since researchers so supported may find it difficult to criticize government programs...

...24 It means only that such agreement or consensus is both primary and essential before we can begin to implement, as we should and must, the evidence of science and the tools of technology...

...12 Luther J. Carter, "Research Triangle Park Succeeds Beyond Its Promoter's Expectations," Science, June 30, 1978, pp...

...see also the interesting letter by John Metcalfe in the New York Times, April 14, 1979...

...One of the six scientists felt that the main purpose of the Council, which acts as an advisory group on agriculture, was to get the task force to produce "a document that would be used to directly counter" a proposal by the Food and Drug Administration to ban the use of antibiotics in animal feed...

...In the U.S...

...1227-29...

...24-26...

...With all of its imperfections modern science remains the single best tool for dealing with mundane reality...

...When we hear the word "scientist," images of Einstein, Newton, Pasteur rise in our minds...

...26 We will also not be embarrassed to admit that feelings, emotions, and values enter into public deliberations, as they in fact play a part in purely "scientific" inquiries...

...Indeed it demonstrates that the obligation of the expert in industry and government is to expose, at a very early stage, the whole range of issues to the "expert" scrutiny of all citizens...

...p. 132...

...This is not a new development...

...1177-86...

...The research report submitted by Dow scientists to substantiate this conclusion generated both support and doubt among the experts...

...15 Science, November 10, 1978, p. 602...

...The U.S...

...Moreover, the Council receives substantial funding support from agricultural trade associations and from fertilizer, pesticide, and drug manufacturers, including American Cyanamid, Dow Chemical, Mobil Chemical, and Stauffer Chemical...

...The traditional outlet for scientific reporting is often short-circuited...

...But the concept has been severely criticized, and on strong grounds, it seems to me...

...The EPA, for example, is often blamed for not issuing regulations to control the hazardous wastes that constitute the largest single threat to environmental health and safety...

...Most of them "have tended to deemphasize the possible dangers involved in agricultural practices...

...in a "sciencebased" policy, human beings are viewed as objects to be manipulated to attain ends that are apparent and desirable to some few "masters of the data...

...12 The usually perspicacious editors of Science in this case evidently saw nothing to ponder concerning the motive for establishing CIIT ("regulatory pressures") or the well-defined scope of its research ("non-proprietary commodity chemicals...

...503509, where Gould argues that "unconscious manipulating of data may be a scientific norm...

...Something modeled on the lines of the French Polytechnical Institute, which trains career civil-service scientists, might be considered...

...14 See Steven Ferrey, "Solar Eclipse: Our Bungled Energy Policy," Saturday Review, March 3, 1979, pp...

...That is, on the job they do as they are told...

...Commissioner on Food and Drugs, recently stated that The magnitude of the effort we are now expending in dealing with the aftermath of the revolution in synthetic organic chemistry is a good example...

...The FDA, however, learned in 1977 that it could no longer assume good faith compliance with basic scientific requirements...

...10 Richard Reeves, New Scientist, March 2, 1978, p. 608...

...Scientists themselves, as Philip Siekevitz of the Rockefeller Institute recently put it, are not above "the prostitution of [science's] procedures and goals and aims...

...and social class in which it is shown "beyond reasonable doubt" that Burt fabricated much of his data: D. D. Dorfman, "The Cyril Burt Question: New Findings," Science, September 29, 1978, pp...

...Perhaps it is not surprising that different decisions were reached .s The most common governmental abuses of science occur when agency and commission experts develop too close professional and personal relationships with the commercial and industrial entities they are supposed to be evaluating...

...It is clear to scientists themselves that their profession is undergoing inordinate stress...

...They are only human...

...Inevitably, the workplace imperatives affect these scientists and their conception of what scientific research entails...

...See Science, March 24, 1967, inside back cover...

...Scientists have already called for the establishment of an independent institute to serve as a "watchdog" of government projects and programs...

...13 "Academy Food Committees: New Criticism of Industry Ties," Science, September 29, 1972, pp...

...Among other steps, it would be appropriate for our society to increase its support of "basic research" in the universities so as to relieve scientists of anxiety concerning their employment and to free them from the blandishments and complications of corporate grants...

...Lest we dismiss this as a "German" phenomenon, we should recall the herdlike obedience of most academicians at the University of California during the "loyalty oath" struggle in 1950...

...a See Dr...

...in the face of growing regulatory pressures...

...This argument assumes that "science" has not from the beginning been used by nonscientists for nonscientific ends...

...1, 16, has a detailed review of this toxic waste problem...

...33-38...

...The Environmental Protection Agency, however, did not accept Dow's explanation...

...The results were heartening: The Berger Inquiry's methodology reveals the extent to which information is the key element of an assessment process...

...What is to be done about this state of affairs...

...Science itself has taught us that our perceptions of "reality" are highly selective, often unconscious, and commonly guided by what we wish to perceive...

...The case study they use to illustrate this integration appears to me, however, too narrow an issue and uniquely open to scientific conclusions to sustain their argument...

...it will, however, always be something morally justifiable and a source of legitimate pride...

...1 (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), p. 564...

...The cartoon appeared in the February 17, 1977 issue, p. 379...

...San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, October 14, 1979, sec...

...19 See Cornelius J. Pings on the National Commission on Research, in Science, May 11, 1979, p. 1158...

...20 All this again raises the question, what has this to do with the citizens of a liberal democracy...

...and R. Jeffrey Smith, "Toxic Substances: EPA and OSHA are Reluctant Regulators," Science, January 5, 1979, pp...

...Its developers recognized the fact that the group that controls the information, controls all else, and that the control of information should not rest exclusively with experts...

...28-32...

...2 Dow and EPA scientists plan to meet soon to clarify what their respective studies mean, and there the matter sits while an extremely toxic substance accumulates in our environment...

...See also David E. and Abraham M. Lilienfeld on the need for a "watchdog" institute, in Science, October 21, 1977, pp...

...The scientists had been recruited by CAST to help a task force produce a report on the use of antibiotics in animal feed...

...The Institute is located in the Research Triangle Park, near Chapel Hill, North Carolina...

...Yet citizens of a liberal democracy, in which many important social decisions are made on the basis of "scientific" reports, ought to be aware of the extent to which those statements are true...

...We should be aware, however, that most of our university-trained scientists are employed by major industries...

...Energy legislation passed last September requires the Department of Energy to supervise states' efforts to conserve electric power and encourage solar energy use...

...The matter of toxic chemicals has a particular immediacy for all citizens...

...389-96...

...His criticism was directed at some of the largest independent testing laboratories and at their corporate clients who routinely pressured them for quick and favorable results .9 A "front" has been defined as "a group serving under the guise of a fair-seeming activity to gain favorable publicity or as a public representative of a pressure group, for the end of deluding the public...

...In November the DOE turned the development of that program over to an engineering firm that is, in Steven Ferrey's words, knee-deep in both electric utilities and nuclear power...

...Some have also advocated the establishment of a "Science Court" that would be "modeled on the judicial procedure for proceeding in the presence of scientific controversy...

...2 See, for this material, R. Jeffrey Smith, "Dioxins Have Been Present Since the Advent of Fire, Says Dow," Science, December 15, 1978, pp...

...Such a conclusion is reinforced when we recall the remarks made in 1972 by Samuel S. Epstein, a professor of environmental health at Case Western Reserve University: "Anyone can buy the data to support his case...

...It is true that authoritarian regimes have always prostituted "science" to consolidate their power and further their ends...

...Issues and positions are rarely unambiguous...

...11 On the Roche Institute of Molecular Biology, see D. S. Greenberg, "Molecular Biology: Drug Firm to Establish New Research Center," Science, July 28, 1967, pp...

...20 See P. M. Boffey, The Brain Bank of America (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), and Kenneth R. Hammond and Leonard Adelman, "Science, Values and Human Judgment," Science, October 22, 1976, pp...

...Churchill was mistaken about "perverted" science— only humans, not their tools, can be perverse, and a definition of "perversion" is beyond science...

...The purpose of the CIIT is "to do research on non-proprietary `commodity chemicals...

...The scientist's answer may strike the layman as a counsel of despair: "Perhaps the solution lies in greatly increased efforts of individual scientists—to vigorously take initiative and responsibility, to immediately expose bad science whenever it occurs, and thereby to re-establish credibility...

...Writing in Science, the commentator on this "scientific" exercise observed — Although there might be a scientific case to be made for tightening up the definition of teratogenesis, this is not the reason for the Dow scientists' attempt to refashion the English language...

...Donald Kennedy, the former U.S...

...Most of us tend also to forget that scientists are mere mortals...

...OSHA contends, however, that there is no scientific method of determining a safe level of human exposure to carcinogens such as benzene...

...See also the expose of Cyril Burt's work on I.Q...

...Scientific work appears in unrefereed reports, news statements, hearing records, symposium transcripts, speeches, and independently published documents...

...The "bureaucrats" are thus blamed for industry's catastrophes...

...In any event, scientists tend to advance merely technical solutions to what are in fact complex social and political problems...

...In 1971, the noted ecologist Barry Commoner wrote: "No one has argued, to my knowledge, that the recent advent of pollutants on the earth is the result of some natural change independent of man...

...nor will such analyses be used fallaciously and illegitimately, that is, outside the closed systems they are solely designed for...

...By the laws of supply and demand our wages are dropping and our status falls with them...

...Such a context strongly influences one's outlook on the world...

...the dieldrin decision was taken by a new, open, and highly visible agency established (in part) to overcome the uncomfortably close identity of interest between the Department of Agriculture and the agricultural industry...

...16 See "High Court to Review OSHA Benzene Rule," Chemical and Engineering News, February 26,1979, pp...

...948-51...

...That is, they can tell the citizen about probable causes and probable effects but they can tell us little or nothing about means and ends, or what we should do...