THE UNION MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTHWEST
Green, George N.
The history of the labor movement in the South is varied and colorful, though little known. The first Southern unions were formed in the major cities early in the 19th century, especially in the...
...Regional salary differences are much smaller among white-collar workers and professionals than among blue-collar workers...
...Employment and Earnings...
...Blacks also made a difference...
...Hill defeated Briscoe, carrying the coastal counties with the traditionally big labor vote...
...With no official endorsement, each union could support anyone it chose, and perhaps half of them threw in with Hill...
...The Texas militia was then dispatched to Fort Worth...
...In their heartland of Dallas, the open shoppers bragged that they had forced the local Building Trades' Council to disband...
...Briscoe's challenger, Attorney General John Hill, a hard-driving champion of consumers and educational spending, had much labor support, especially from the Steelworkers, Machinists, and Teachers...
...Texas became one of the first states to adopt workers' accident compensation, and child labor was at least curtailed...
...Republicans also determined the outcome, since hundreds of thousands of them voted in the Texas Democratic primary and, of course, were out to defeat Yarborough...
...Erika Sanchez, column in the Dallas Morning News, November 25, 1979...
...Moreover, immigration out of the South has been reversed...
...Clements edged Hill and became the first Republican governor of Texas in 105 years...
...The General Motors plant in Oklahoma City just signed on with 2,500 members, while another 800 in Monroe, Louisiana's runaway GM plant, were brought in the fold in 1978...
...Having worn out the segregation issue earlier, in his first primary (and been warned by his closest aide, "I don't believe that old dog will hunt again"), Shivers seized on the alleged threat of a Communist takeover in Texas...
...A Republican presidential victory in Texas, however, could not carry enough Republicans into office to threaten Democratic supremacy in the state legislature...
...A very large number of delegates felt that she was destined to lose and that labor had nothing to fear from Briscoe...
...Teams of Port Arthur businessmen appeared on radio and television around the state, describing their city as a ghost town because of Communist picketing...
...One-fifth of the Texas population was below the poverty level...
...12 All the negative Southern trends cited by Marshall, which make it more difficult for unions to organize, are still operative...
...The gubernatorial election of Price Daniel in 1956 turned out to be a political watershed in Texas, marking the rise of a more moderate establishment...
...During the 1979 session of the Texas 8Green, "A Liberal View of Texas Politics Since the 1930s...
...Daniel and the labor lobby worked for the adoption of an abandoned property act and a lobby registration law...
...67, 72...
...Labor was becoming more and more uncomfortable with the ideological notions of the Democrats of Texas (1956-60...
...But labor was revitalized by the 1934 election of Governor Jimmie Allred, by New Deal legislation, and by the rise of the CIO...
...An evenhanded urban reapportionment is a distinct possibility, but largely because labor is already cutting deals with some very conservative incumbents in order to guarantee fairness...
...P .1 time, and most of them are evidently coming 'into play: • the prevailing Southern ideology is being altered by industrialization...
...5 4Based on George N. Green, The Establishment in Texas Politics (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979...
...The American Federation of Teachers is coming on strong...
...491 Food Workers—are all growing, but it is mostly the slow growth that is traceable to new hires and the organizing of small plants...
...Charles Janus, "Union Mergers in the 1970s," Monthly Labor Review, October 1978, p. 15...
...The labor lobby failed in each of these instances, but it did help block most of Clements's programs...
...Yarborough had been tagged an antiprayer, anti-Southern exponent of minorities and youthful demonstrators, and much of the labor rank and file believed it, to the dismay of labor leaders...
...The Texas AFL-CIO lined up with Briscoe's forces against the liberals at the state conventions of 1974 and 1976...
...As a percentage of nationwide unionization (assuming association membership does not skew the ratio), Southern unionization has gained since the mid-1960s...
...That kind of turnover (facilitated by a labor pledge of about a half-million dollars) would give progressives in the 1981 legislature decisive influence over the redistricting of legislative and congressional seats...
...As a result, safety laws and eight-hour laws were passed for many workers...
...The Southern Knights numbered close to 50,000 in 1886, out of a total membership of 730,000 throughout the country...
...The Amalgamated Clothing Workers and the Textile Workers' Union of America, however, merged in part because of intransigent antiunionism among Southern employers...
...5George N. Green, "Anti-Labor Politics in Texas, 19411957," Labor in the Southwest: The First 100 Years (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1980...
...Labor's stand deprived Farenthold of some financing, but many individual unions contributed money and manpower to her cause, and by itself labor's official stand did not affect the outcome of the race...
...Daniel joined labor in resisting a sales tax and in criticizing the oil lobby that was putting it through the legislature, though Daniel later caved in and refused to veto it...
...Unemployment is the scourge of the poor in the Northeast, but in the heart of the Sunbelt the poor stay poor because of the sort of jobs they have...
...Labor followed its customary practice, in Texas at least, of lobbying for a whole gamut of people-oriented issues: the bill allowing cheap generic drugs to be substituted for higherpriced brand names, expanded bilingual education, saving the state's tough consumer protection act, and protecting the environment from strip-mining...
...This often has a ripple effect,_ driving relatively skilled nonunion native workers out of, say, highway construction, into the urban construction sector of the economy, where they compete with the building trades' unions...
...Large numbers of people are moving from the North and East to the South and Southwest, especially since the fuel crunch of 1973, and these migrants tend to be "Preliminary Union Membership Data, 1978," Bureau of Labor Statistics chart, November 1979...
...489 legislature Clements revealed that he had no grasp of the legislative process, and so he saw most of his pet projects sink out of sight— giving the state police wiretapping authority and prohibiting a state income tax...
...Other than the reversal of migration, the major change in outlook for Southern unions since 1968 involves the spread of "labor consultants" and the open campaign waged by many industries to destroy unions...
...About a year ago, some 800 new members signed up in Corpus Christi, Texas, and in October 1979 the AFT won bargaining rights for 4,500 teachers in Albuquerque, New Mexico...
...The truth is that the corporations simply rendered rural-urban differences irrelevant...
...Though not a single man-hour of work had been lost on any defense job because of strikes, O'Daniel railed about "labor leader racketeers" who were threatening to take over Texas and cripple Britain's struggle against the Nazis...
...the Texas AFL-CIO's political arm, COPE, refrained from any endorsement...
...That endorsement, however, required twothirds of the COPE delegates, and only a little over half of them were willing to string along...
...Assisted by enormous donations from corporate interest groups and the editorial support of 95 of the state's 100 daily papers, Shivers eased back into office.4 One historian of the labor movement in Texas, citing votes during the 1947 session of the state legislature, attributed the antilabor laws to urban influences and noted that the cities were run by businessmen...
...Among the railroad unions, in fact, the machinists, boilermakers, and blacksmiths all were of Southern origin—they all were founded around 1888 in Atlanta, which was the South's most important railroad center at the time...
...10 Over the past 40 years the average percentage of unionized Southern workers has been about half the national average...
...The first significant general labor organization was the Knights of Labor, which sent 15 organizers into the South in 1878, especially into Alabama and Kentucky...
...In the 11 former Confederate states the average statelevel figure for hourly earnings of production workers on manufacturing payrolls was $5.48 in May 1979, with only Texas and Louisiana exceeding $6.00...
...Similar legislation is bogged down in Congress because of employer and Mexican American opposition...
...In 1920, open-shop champions helped persuade Governor Will Hobby to break the Galveston Longshoremen's strike with state militia and to force the passage of the open-port law in a special session of the legislature...
...The bigger unions in the Sunbelt— Teamsters, Communications Workers, Machinists, Steelworkers, Auto Workers, Oil Workers, Carpenters, Electrical Workers, 12 lnterviews with labor leaders...
...13 q 13 Marshall, "Organized Labor," p. 72...
...The building trades' unions so far are gaining few members, but some of the state's building trades' organizations have quickened their interest in the issues of the day...
...Among industrial organizations, the brewery workers and mine workers organized in the South in the 1880s and 1890s...
...The labor movement then fractured: the UAW swallowed its pride and endorsed Bentsen...
...Labor then pulled together, as it is able to do rather well under Hubbard, and worked for Hill against Dallas multimillionaire Republican oilman Bill Clements...
...for a spate of regulatory laws...
...Antiunion sentiment crested in 1947, when the Texas Manufacturers Association, regional chambers of commerce, and rightwing extremist groups successfully lobbied 'Charles Walker, "The Ford Way of Doing Business," The New Republic, May 20 and 27, 1940...
...The law suspended several parts of the U.S...
...Simultaneously, tensions within the liberal bloc—labor, Mexican Americans, blacks, small farmers, independent urban Anglos—surfaced just as the bloc began wielding influence upon the state's politics...
...Still, there have been some exciting victories in the past year or two...
...Yarborough had a splendid labor-liberal voting record, yet he did not sweep the Texas labor vote...
...Oil refineries, packinghouses, steel and aircraft plants, dock workers, truck drivers, pecan shellers, and auto workers were unionized...
...Gould goaded the union into precipitate action by firing a Texas union leader...
...Grady Mullennix, "A History of the Texas State Federation of Labor" (University of Texas at Austin, Ph.D...
...During their heyday in the 1940s and 1950s, they were dedicated to a regressive tax structure, suppression of minorities and unions, and stinginess in state services...
...Liberal judge Ralph Yarborough, backed by labor, waged a spirited campaign in the 1954 primary, but he soon found himself connected to a "Communistic labor menace," conjured up by Shivers...
...the rising living standards and changed life patterns, which make the worker more responsive to family, community, and neighborhood influences...
...They include the tendency for plants to locate in smaller communities...
...The first trend listed by Marshall was the migration of workers out of the South, which would help unions by reducing the supply of labor...
...This, in conjunction with the efforts of a rebuilt liberal coalition, could even break the conservatives' 40-year grip on the state government— according to liberal speculation...
...Ray Marshall, "The Development of Organized Labor," Monthly Labor Review, March 1968, pp...
...221-29, 270-81...
...The Texas prevailing wage law is weak, for instance, but when the state legislature tried to slip through a bill abolishing it in 1979, some 10,000 singing building tradesmen marched through Austin, and the effort was quashed...
...The Knight's primary goals were the eighthour work day, industrial safety, child labor laws, and equal pay for women...
...Their presence, along with 200 federal deputies who were also company gunmen, the virtual absence of a strike fund, the availability of cheap scabs, the presence of corporate spies in all the union assemblies, and corporate control of the courts insured Gould's victory in less than two months...
...If COPE had endorsed Farenthold, if the Chicano La Raza movement had not launched a splinter effort, and if the runoff had not been held after college students had gone home for the semester, Farenthold might have overcome the margin of 1,101,000 to 888,000...
...Evans and a COPE majority then voted to make no endorsement of anyone, while the rest of the state's liberals really were fired up over the "Farenthold phenomenon...
...The solons obliged with a right-to-work law, new measures abolishing the checkoff and secondary boycotts, and by a new law subjecting unions to antitrust statutes and an anti-masspicketing act (defining mass picketing as more than two pickets either within 50 feet of the plant entrance or within 50 feet of any other picket...
...San Antonio Weekly Dispatch, April 3, May l5, July 17, 1920, and May 14, November 5, 1921...
...Constitution and helped obliterate longshoremen's and railway shop unions...
...3 Meanwhile, a conservative Democratic establishment—a loosely knit plutocracy of Anglo businessmen, bankers, oilmen, and lawyers—took over the state in the late 1930s...
...These UAW inroads in the Sunbelt helped persuade GM to grant the union an automatic recognition proviso in 1979, which should end GM's policy of encouraging runaways to the Sunbelt...
...Imported strikebreakers were armed and used in another streetcar strike in San Antonio and in the lumber camps of East Texas...
...Most of that industry is now concentrated in the South and Southwest...
...thesis, 1977), pp...
...but Clements spent $7 million, and he was particularly successful in turning out the upper- and upper-middle-class Anglo voters and in portraying himself as the conservative in a race against a big-spending liberal...
...Erika Sanchez, column in Dallas Morning News, November 25, 1979...
...9 Meanwhile, much of the heralded growth in Texas and the Sunbelt has been in lowwage industrial jobs...
...Like other elements in the loose liberal coalition, labor (with the exception of some Dallas leaders) found it difficult to cooperate with Governor John Connally (1963-69), who denounced the very idea of a state minimumwage law and refused even to meet in his office with a delegation of unionized Chicano farm hands from the Rio Grande Valley.6 The greatest single political jolt to the labor movement in Texas since the passage of the punitive laws of 1947 was the defeat of labor champion Ralph Yarborough by Lloyd Bentsen, Jr., in the 1970 Democratic senatorial primary...
...2Quote from W. S. Mosher, "Open Shop in the Southwest," Open Shop Review, 18 (March 1921), pp...
...Open-shop businesses imported strikebreakers from Mexico who finished off the Texas Oil Workers' locals...
...Marshall, Labor in the South, pp...
...the increasing unionization of white-collar and government workers is a definite factor, as are the changing attitudes of Southern workers in the face of industrialization and urbanization...
...The burgeoning Texas Oil Workers' union was smashed in 1917 when the Texas refineries refused to grant a four-dollar, eight-hour day, though they were conceded in the rest of the nation's oil areas.' In 1919, growing antilabor sentiment led to the sudden founding of the open-shop movement, designed to resist the "dictatorial...
...There is enormous potential for union growth in the Sunbelt, and, in fact, more union representation elections are now being won in Texas than anywhere in the country...
...Patterns of union growth in the South resembled those in the rest of the country...
...The establishment was forced into the defensive in the mid-1950s, when Governor Allan Shivers's administration was embarrassed by insurance scandals perpetuated by his friends and appointees and by the governor's dubious real estate transactions in the Rio Grande Valley...
...Labor won an unprecedented 13 of the 76 seats in the Texas delegation for the Democratic national convention in Kansas City and increased its representation on the 62-member state Democratic executive committee from 3 to 7. Now labor was consulted on a number of appointments and strongly influenced crucial ones to the state's industrial accident board, the Texas employment commission, and the insurance board, triggering some progressive changes in each...
...They contended in 1960, for example, that it was futile to fight Lyndon Johnson's presidential candidacy in his home state and that tactical cooperation with Governor Daniel and Johnson's forces might prevent Democrats who were even more conservative from controlling the state convention...
...In the state of Texas this is especially unfortunate, for here, in some ways, the battles of the 1930s are still being fought...
...Consequently, factory workers, especially the unskilled, are not making the move because they cannot command the same wages in the South that they can in the North...
...The socalled antiviolence law that resulted from this speech was so poorly drawn and so clearly unconstitutional that it did not survive long in the courts...
...This trend has been canceled, especially in Texas and the Southwest, by several million illegal immigrants from Mexico...
...August 1979, p. 109...
...Shortly after the Civil War, the longshoremen and the various railroad unions organized vigorous Southern affiliates...
...n 1968, Ray Marshall listed trends favoring union growth in the South at the 9Based on the author's own observations and interviews with various labor leaders and the Texas Observer, March 31, May 26, 1978...
...Under Allred the eight-hour law was made effective, the sales tax was beaten, and unemployment compensation established...
...Interviews with labor leaders...
...In fact, a few crucial defections on the part of local labor and minority leaders made the difference in the outcome...
...Spurred by the Wagner Act, the AFL and the CIO launched successful organizing drives in the late 1930s, and used wartime conditions to increase their membership tremendously 'Most of this information on the early movement is derived from Ray Marshall, Labor in the South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), and from Ruth Allen, Chapters in the History of Organized Labor in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Bureau of Research in the Social Sciences, 1941) and The Great Southwest Strike (same publisher, 1942...
...Harry Zeman, "Regional Pay Differentials in White Collar Occupations," Monthly Labor Review, January 1971, p. 53...
...Most of Evans's followers and a majority of the COPE delegates favored Farenthold, but she lacked the necessary twothirds needed for an endorsement...
...486 between 1941 and 1945...
...but this is an active, nationwide movement that has no special Southern strategy...
...During the Briscoe years labor induced the establishment (which was growing increasingly restive about Republican gains) to moderate some of its standard tactics (for instance, the steamrollering at conventions) and positions...
...Expansion fluctuated with the business cycle—with unions growing rapidly during such periods of ferment as the mid-1880s and the two world wars, but it declined during such open-shop periods as the 1920s...
...young, qualified white-collar workers who have been unable to find opportunities in the North...
...and insolent demands of organized labor...
...but in the house 37 urban representatives fought the bills, while only 25 of their more numerous rural colleagues did so...
...These seem to be signals that a prolabor stance is becoming good politics for those who hope to survive in a changing Democratic party—though, of course, the Democrats may be buried by the surging Republicans...
...Harold Shapiro, "The Pecan Shellers of San Antonio, Texas," Southwestern Social Science Quarterly, March 1952, pp...
...The new Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers' Union launched a boycott against North Carolina's outlaw firm, J. P. Stevens, the second largest textile corporation in the U.S...
...After 1880 Texas was the most populous and rapidly industrializing state in the South, and so may serve as something of a case study for the region...
...Indeed, many labor precincts—as, for instance, that of the oil workers in Nederland and the general bluecollar workers in Pleasant Grove (Dallas)— voted for Bentsen...
...AFL-CIO leaders believed that significant gains could be accomplished by compromising with the post1956 establishment...
...The State, County, and Municipal Employees are expanding throughout the Sunbelt, especially in such major cities as Atlanta and Houston, but they will be limited until most states change their collective-bargaining laws for state employees...
...Yarborough polled 49 percent in the runoff and very nearly prevented John Connally from becoming governor of Texas...
...To the irritation of George Meany, much of Texas labor participated unofficially in the successful liberal strategies of "going fishing" on election day rather than supporting ultraconservative Democrats William (Dollar Bill) Blakeley (1961) and Waggoner Carr (1966) when they ran against ultraconservative Republican Senator John Tower...
...Hubbard arranged a compromise whereby the governor was "recommended," while Hill was "commended...
...Among the longshoremen, the screwmen were in an especially strategic position since they stowed cotton and tabacco aboard ships with jackscrews...
...At its 1979 convention, the AFL-CIO seized upon the probability that close to 800,000 voters would be lured into the hot Republican presidential primary that was featuring Connally, Reagan, and Bush...
...Yet, the Texas AFL-CIO (under Hank Brown, its new president and Roy Evans, its secretary-treasurer), went all out for liberal lawyer Don Yarborough in the 1962 Democratic gubernatorial primary...
...Had Briscoe received an unqualified COPE endorsement, all unions would have been obligated to close ranks behind him...
...Antiunion bastions—such as J. P. Stevens, Texas Instruments, and the Brown and Root Construction Company—remain untouched, protected by the states' antilabor laws, the Southern and Western heritage of individualism, and by the economic factors cited above...
...One of his deputies was killed at the Battle of Buttermilk Switch in Fort Worth...
...Clearly the labor vote, which was becoming difficult to discern in many cities, was a dubious bastion of liberal strength...
...he would have gotten money and campaign help, and his name would have been on labor's slate card handed to all 275,000 or so Texas union members...
...The majority of Texas labor favored Kennedy over Carter, though no Democratic presidential candidate—and now Carter—seems to have much of a chance of carrying Texas in 1980...
...but O'Daniel rolled on...
...In 1946 an emerging urban coalition of CIO labor and minority groups backed former University of Texas president Homer Rainey for governor, but he and virtually all laborsupported candidates in Texas lost, many of them because of bitter campaigns against the "left-wing political terrorists of the CIOPAC...
...68-69...
...Labor Unionism in American Agriculture, BLS Bulletin 836 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1945), pp...
...dissertation, 1955), pp...
...The State Federation, which represented some 8,500 workers, worked alongside the Railroad Brotherhoods and the Farmers' Union in lobbying for progressive legislation...
...Bureau of Labor Statistics calculations for total union and association membership in 1978 show 19 percent of Southern workers organized, 25.3 percent of the workers in the Southwest, and 28.7 percent of those in the rest of the nation...
...The strike began peacefully, but soon Jim Courtright, a "notorious desperado," both acting city marshall of Fort Worth and a hired gunman for the Missouri Pacific Railroad, shot down three or four pickets...
...But Governor Briscoe helped prevent righttowork from going into the state constitution, and he also helped create the state's public utilities commission—long a labor goal—though the governor predictably stacked it with anticonsumer appointees...
...Liberal anger at labor continued when the Texas AFL-CIO associated with Dolph Briscoe's establishment administration (197379), which was primarily dedicated to holding the•line on taxes...
...Under 485 the dynamic leadership of Martin Irons, some 9,000 employees of Gould's Southwestern railroads walked out...
...these products had to be carefully packed in order to be profitable...
...In January 1979, the state's Democratic executive committee gave evidence of the changes that were underway when it commended the United Farm Workers, and state comptroller Bob Bullock startled the labor movement when he endorsed state employee unionization...
...8 In the spring of 1978 Harry Hubbard, president of the Texas AFL-CIO since 1973, and most of the state's top labor leaders believed that Briscoe had delivered sufficiently on his promises to merit labor's endorsement...
...270-71...
...Lewis Gould, Progressives and Prohibitionists (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973), pp...
...Antiblacklisting acts went on the books...
...In the 1890s the first city labor councils were organized, and in 1900 the Texas State Federation of Labor was formed in Cleburne...
...115-24...
...As in the rest of the nation, rank-and-file union members were more conservative than labor leaders...
...18, 33, 42...
...488 Backed by enormous sums of money from the corporate lobbies and by the usual support of the daily press, Briscoe was nevertheless hard pressed by Farenthold, who talked of levying a corporate profits tax and even of disarming the strikebreaking Texas Rangers...
...A successful 1884 strike on the Jay Gould railroads catapulted the Knights into the undisputed leadership of the nation's labor movement...
...The streetcar workers of Houston were unjustly accused of bombing streetcars, and the State Federation's vicepresident was arrested for complicity...
...Hill was widely perceived to be the sure winner, continually leading in the polls...
...229-44...
...Official Returns, 1970, Dallas County Clerk's Office...
...They voted overwhelmingly for Yarborough, but only about a third turned out...
...Maldistribution of income and declining control over jobs are common throughout the country, but poverty in the Sunbelt is more persistent than elsewhere...
...the dispersion of workers' homes, making it more difficult for union organizers to contact them...
...and the teamsters inscrutably supported Republican nominee George Bush.' The first deep division in a Democratic gubernatorial primary between labor and the rest of the very loose liberal coalition occurred when liberal state representative Frances "Sissy" Farenthold took on conservative rancher Dolph Briscoe in the 1972 runoff...
...Even as labor enjoyed these successes, the counterattacks began...
...Mexican American agricultural workers in the Rio Grande Valley and the smelter workers in El Paso saw their unions destroyed by imported Mexican immigrants in the 1910s...
...2 The Great Depression weakened the moribund State Federation, and in the early 1930s it did not seem to have much reason for existence...
...Free textbooks were provided for the public schools...
...In the far Southwest— California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma—the average wage was $6.38, while in the rest of the states it was $6.76...
...Robert Christopher, "Rebirth and Lost Opportunitites: The Texas AFL and the New Deal, 1933-1939" (University of Texas at Arlington...
...unions' political power is growing because of reapportionment and increased cooperation with minorities...
...The two antiunion Iaws of 1941 and 1943 were opposed by a grand total of 9 rura) senators and only 4 urbanites...
...this would give labor a real opportunity to dump 3 conservative state senators and about 25 conservative state representatives in swing districts in the Democratic primary, and to replace them with liberals and moderates...
...6George N. Green, "A Liberal View of Texas Politics Since the 1930s," pamphlet, to be published by the American Press, 1980...
...Governor W. Lee O'Daniel, desperately needing to accomplish something to stay in office, suddenly asked for an immediate joint session of the state legislature to hear him on March 13, 1941...
...They maintained themselves in office primarily by labor-baiting...
...325-28...
...Most of them do not actually take jobs held by union members, but they are considerably enlarging the pool of scabs, easing any rectuitment difficulties nonunion contractors and industrial employers might have...
...there is a growing motive to organize the South because of its increasing industrialization and because union conditions elsewhere must be protected...
...The first Southern unions were formed in the major cities early in the 19th century, especially in the building and printing trades...
...These changing attitudes probably also depend heavily on the mass media...
...Meanwhile, after a bitter battle, Roy Evans won the Texas AFL-CIO presidency vacated by Hank Brown in 1971...
...Southwestern unions want penalties levied against employers who hire illegals, but these measures are unlikely to be adopted as state laws unless, possibly, the Anglo majorities became emotionally aroused by the influx of aliens...
...In 1979 there were more than twice as many people below the poverty line in the South than in the Northeast...
...There is mounting evidence that the attitudes, laws, and economic factors that hinder unions will change significantly—not immediately, but within a generation...
...Texas Observer, May 15, 1970...
Vol. 27 • September 1980 • No. 4
