EUROCOMMUNISM-MYTH, HOPE, DELUSION?:DEMOCRATIC GREECE-STUMBLING TOWARD MODERNITY
Kitromilides, Paschalis M.
... it is a certaine signe of wise Government. . . when it can hold Mens hearts by Hopes .. . -FRANCIS BACON I The collapse of the Greek dictatorship in July 1974 generated an extraordinary...
...Judging by the political line of their newspapers, these people seem to have regretted nothing and learned nothing...
...It also has inherited the problems of Greek liberalism...
...From 1936 to 1941 he was a member of the Socialist party...
...There is another cultural achievement that deserves mention...
...Polling 20.4 percent of the vote, it emerged as the second party in parliament and thus forms what in Greece is called the "axiomatic opposition...
...The University succeeded in the first task: the Greek populations of the East were wholeheartedly converted to Greek nationalism...
...PASOK grew out of PAK (Panhellenic Liberation Movement), Papandreou's resistance organization that was active during the seven years of military rule...
...As a consequence, the productive sectors of the Greek economy stayed underdeveloped and Greece remained an extremely inegalitarian society...
...It was a vote of prudence, an effort to prevent a return to military rule...
...WW II ith the election and parliamentary government, Greek politics took on a new shape...
...MARSHALL BERMAN, author of The Politics of Authentici ty, teaches political theory at City College, CUNY...
...The Greek university system still functions largely on the 19th-century German model...
...The inspiration and mood of their poetry is infused with a sense of disappointment and loss that also pervades Seferis' poetry...
...The Social Democrats, having lost, opted out and formed a splinter party, the Socialist Initiative, which includes 75 the most prominent Greek Social Democrats and has deprived EDIK of some of its most talented leaders...
...It comes from the world of the cinema and is best revealed in the motion picture Thiasos (The Troupe), directed by Th...
...Out of a total of 70,000-80,000 applicants, only about 10,000-15,000 are admitted after a severe examination process...
...The Prime Minister has not only avoided supporting the liberal elements in his party...
...The failures of liberalism were largely due to the class relations that took shape in Greek society as a result of the country's location on the socioeconomic periphery of the modern world...
...Three main currents can be discerned in New Democracy...
...land 11...
...How realistic this is will depend on his capacity to cooperate with other forces of the opposition...
...On this point there is almost complete unanimity among parliamentary political groups, excluding the recalcitrant conservative wing of "New Democracy...
...The rare exceptions only underline the problem...
...In fairness it must be said that this group appears committed to the parliamentary process, but theirs is an old-fashioned parliamentarism in which patronage remains basic to political control...
...Second, it deprives the country of the skills necessary to cope with the technical problems of government, economic modernization, business, modern science, etc...
...The victory belonged to PASOK and its leader Andreas Papandreou...
...Caught between red tape and the hostile attitude of civil servants, the citizen is reduced to a sense of impotence and hostility toward the state...
...For Karamanlis, Greece's problems require technical, not structural, solutions...
...The traditional reactionary right, utterly discredited because of its collaboration with the dictatorship, was expected to disappear as a political force, thus removing the major impediment to fundamental changes...
...First, university instruction perpetuated a conservative ideology through ex cathedra pronouncements of militantly conservative "truths," especially in such faculties as philosophy, theology, and law...
...Such suggestions have repeatedly been put forward by the left...
...Key positions in government, business, and the professions are occupied on the basis of inherited privilege or go to those who managed to acquire the necessary competence abroad—and these people usually come from the same closed and deeply entrenched elites...
...For instance, the programs of the various political groups of the left are essentially aimed at creating the conditions for a transition to liberal social democracy...
...Second, there have been attempts to bring potential agents of change under control...
...Despite his pretensions, he lacks a wider vision...
...Angelopoulos...
...Instead, Greece has remained what it was: an inegalitarian society marked by extreme concentration of wealth in the hands of a few social castes, economically dependent on nonproductive sectors (shipping, tourism and services, emigrants' remittances), and economically dominated from abroad...
...The third group in the Greek right is composed of people for whom the dictatorship was a kind of shock...
...Its effectiveness, however, is undermined by an excessively radical rhetoric...
...NICOLAUS MILLS, a frequent contributor, teaches literature at Sarah Lawrence College...
...The ossification of the polity is reinforced by the workings of the Greek bureaucracy, a civil service vast, fragmented, and excruciatingly inefficient...
...Political life in this period has been intense...
...The basic preoccupation of Greek culture today remains the same as it had been for many generations: how to be true to the genuine traditions of a rich and lively heritage and at the same time respond creatively to contemporary needs...
...This continues to provide the classic mechanism sustaining the status quo by removing the demographic surpluses that could spark protest movements...
...But the end product of this hemorrhage has been a dangerous depopulation of the Greek countryside...
...First, it precludes critical thinking that might challenge prevail77 ing orthodoxies...
...PASOK stressed that, for it, change does not mean a revolutionary overthrow of the social system but pursuit of collective goals, as these mature in the popular consciousness...
...At its inception the University of Athens had a dual purpose: to propagate Hellenic culture as well as sow nationalist ideals in the East, especially among the Greek-speaking populations of the Ottoman Empire—and to train a class of professionals capable of providing leadership for state-building in an independent Greece...
...The split is at the root of the major problems of the Greek left...
...They appear more than willing to tolerate the existence of the parastate and to keep the junta option alive...
...Three such volumes have been published in Athens: Eighteen Texts (1970) and New Texts (1971), vols...
...In his case this sense sprang from the tragic failure of the Ionian vision, in theirs from the bitter defeat of the aspirations of the 1940s...
...He has run his movement as a personal party in the traditional Greek manner and has found it difficult to tolerate collective leadership, thereby precluding, in effect, cooperation with other opposition parties...
...The electoral pact was not faithfully observed during the election, and it broke down immediately thereafter...
...q AMONG OUR CONTRIBUTORS ELAINE HOFFMAN BARUCH teaches English at York College, CUNY...
...The reconstituted party of the traditional right, under the name of "New *One of the most important results of the trials of the junta in the summer of 1975 was that the examination of witnesses (most of whom were prominent right-wing politicans and senior army officers) produced enough evidence to confirm all the allegations and suspicions concerning the existence and workings of the parastate and its ties with the army, the palace, the right-wing establishment, and American secret services...
...All of this transforms daily business into a frantic search for ways to get around the rules, and reinforces the feeling that nothing can be done without calling upon some personal "connection...
...The cadres of the KKE (In) were actively involved in resistance activities in Greece and redefined their positions on the model of the Italian Communist party, from which they received considerable help...
...The problem of admission to the university today is reaching crisis proportions...
...A second group in "New Democracy" is that of the Neo-Europeans...
...Cultural resistance to the junta began with the collective volumes by dissident writers,* and consequently found in the theater an effective mode of communication with the masses...
...The Union of the Democratic Center (EDIK), headed by George Mavros, has inherited the support of the pre-1967 Center Union of George Papandreou and the traditions of Venizelist liberalism...
...Internally PASOK has been weakened through splits and expulsions...
...The KKE (In) represents a serious attempt at innovation...
...Yet, despite these limited goals, progress has been slow...
...Its bitter rival, the Communist party of Greece, KKE, presents an opposite picture...
...It has attracted the support of many of the most serious people in Greece, especially among the intelligentsia, the younger professionals and university youth, and has managed to gain the respect of its ideological rivals in the liberal center and the democratic right, although not of the radical socialists in Papandreou's following who criticize the KKE (In) for being too soft on the government...
...They strongly oppose any further "dejuntaization," and some do not hide their royalist preferences...
...The bureaucracy is staffed by large numbers of underpaid, underqualified, alienated employees...
...Democracy also has brought the legalization of the Communist party, outlawed since the end of the Civil War...
...A Greek university professor has remarked recently in a public discussion at Harvard that at the time of their graduation most Greek students know less than after completing the preparatory courses required for the admission examination...
...Traditionally, the problem of rural poverty has been defused through emigration to North America or Australia and now by the export of Greek Gastarbeiter to central and northern Europe...
...The Communists' effectiveness at the polls has been impeded by a split in their ranks, which occurred in 1968 over disagreements on how to chart a course of action against the dictatorship...
...The University system contributed decisively to the perpetuation of a ruling elite, in two ways...
...The political development that introduced liberal democracy in Western Europe did not operate successfully in Greece...
...The latest testimony on these issues available in English is I Should Have Died, by Philip Dean (New York: Atheneum, 1977...
...In the 1974 elections they ran under the common banner of the "United Left," polling 9.29 percent of the vote (as against 11.83 percent for a similar group in 1964), cast mostly in the working-class suburbs of Athens, Piraeus, and Thessaloniki...
...Their political strategy is modernization without popular participation...
...he has failed to use his mandate to purge the party—as a prelude to a wider purge of the remnants of the dictatorship in the state machine and the armed forces...
...THOMAS B. EDSALL is a reporter in the Washington Bureau of the Baltimore Sun...
...P IV ressures for change and aspirations for participation keep mounting...
...In its parliamentary shape it inherited part of the support enjoyed by Andreas's father, George Papandreou, in certain regions, but it mostly attracted the progressively oriented segments of the urban lower middle class...
...Karamanlis, as premier in the years 195563, was largely responsible for the economic development that established an infrastructure of growth but did nothing to democratize the economy...
...There also will have to be a coherent development plan for industrial production based on available natural and human resources...
...ambassador to Peru...
...He was U.S...
...MONICA JACOBS, an M.A...
...Along with Ares Alexandrou, who published his collected poems in 1972, and a few others, they can be seen as the foremost representatives of post-Seferis poetry...
...when it can hold Mens hearts by Hopes .. . -FRANCIS BACON I The collapse of the Greek dictatorship in July 1974 generated an extraordinary sense of hope...
...JAMES L LOEB, a Ph.D...
...This is underlined by the party's own uncertainty about its variety of socialism...
...To some extent this resembled the pre1967 political spectrum, but with important modifications...
...More attention to the social issues arising out of the modernization of agriculture would probably have made it possible for a larger part of the rural population to remain in the countryside and to increase the share of agricultural incomes in step with the national wealth...
...Its historical roots can be traced back over the past two centuries...
...There is a remarkable absence of resignation...
...MILTON MANKOFF teaches sociology at Queens College, CUNY...
...The KKE (In) remains organizationally weak and besieged by internal disagreements...
...These problems are largely the outcome of the economic policies pursued in post-World War II Greece...
...Parliamentary elections were held on November 17, 1974, the first time in ten years...
...As a result, the Greek Communist party of the Interior, KKE (In), emerged out of the ranks of the traditional Communist party of Greece (KKE), in a separation that was ideological as well as organizational...
...Emigration and the stagnation of the Greek population, as well as rural depopulation and the urban explosion, could have been controlled had there been a better planned development policy...
...Uneasiness over these disturbing signs has been compounded by disappointment over the government's response to the problem of change...
...Uncertain about its ideology, torn between the prominence of its progressively oriented resistance activists and the old party hands, EDIK has weathered, in the last two years, an internal struggle between old-style liberalism and social democracy...
...After 40 years during which Greek politics alternated between upheaval and oppression, there now is unprecedented freedom...
...The most serious provocation came in December 1976 with the funeral of a mysteriously murdered police officer who had been one of the chief torturers under the dictatorship...
...but it failed in the second: the state that was built turned out to be a monster of institutionalized inefficiency and corruption...
...in Romance languages, was executive secretary of the Union for Democratic Action, under Reinhold Niebuhr's chairmanship, from its formation in 1941 until the founding of ADA in 1947, when he became its chairman, serving until 1951...
...V et, despite these serious problems and the disappointment that comes with the realization that old elites are still in control, the mood of the country continues to reflect a yearning for better things...
...This is the basis of patronage politics and a personalized political culture that persists despite long-term economic and demographic changes...
...Worrisome symptoms continued to multiply into 1977...
...And it is around such issues that the dialectic of disappointment has revolved in the last three years...
...The Socialist Course has acted as an ideological pressure group, trying to work in the broader spectrum of the Greek left and aiming to unify the fragmented forces committed to a socialist transformation...
...In December 1976, EDIK nonetheless adopted a social democratic program...
...EDIK's share also was substantially reduced, with 11.95 percent of the vote and 15 seats...
...PASOK's victory was partly due to the charisma of its leader, but due also to a program that is both comprehensive and realistic...
...The quality of university instruction is notoriously poor...
...Still, in advocating profound structural changes, in examining the risks of Greek membership in the EEC, and in his eloquent articulation of an autonomous foreign policy, Papandreou has drawn the outlines of an alternative...
...It is obvious in public life, in the press, in the activities of the politicized university youth, in the enormous output of new books, in the proliferation of fringe political organizations...
...The explanation can be found, I think, in the sense of liberation that pervades Greek life...
...In both cases, there has been a consistent effort to depoliticize the movements by defining their jurisdictions very narrowly, and by forbidding political strikes...
...and to Guinea, 196365...
...The more conservative segments of the party's electoral support having gone over to New Democracy, the party had no choice but to appeal to the socially more forwardlooking groups of the political center, which otherwise might have been lost to the left...
...A substantial group on the right (corresponding perhaps to the 30 percent that voted for the King in the 1974 referendum) are unrepentant conservatives...
...it still lacks a consistently thought-out conception of Greece's problems...
...The obvious consequence is the weakening of students' organizations and trade unions...
...Witnessing these achievements and the eager participation of the younger generation in cultural life, one feels that the most creative energy of contemporary Greece is to be found in the arts and, more generally, in its intellectual life...
...Papandreou's conduct in running his own party raises doubts...
...An alternative to Karamanlis might come from the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), founded and headed by Andreas Papandreou...
...These problems are never tackled...
...Such programs could be financed by public funds that might be increased by nationalizing the country's oligarchic credit and banking system, heavier taxation of large incomes, and strict controls on tax evasion...
...they are simply ignored...
...Concomitantly, there has been an enormous expansion in the major urban areas that have received the peasants who did not go abroad...
...Following the collapse of the junta, a government of national unity—based on the predictatorship parliamentary right, and the liberal and social democratic center—was formed to deal with the Cyprus crisis, to reestablish conditions of political freedom, and to prepare the country for elections...
...Yet, after four or five years in the university, its graduates acquire the formal qualifications required to fill top jobs in Greek society...
...In a referendum held three weeks later, twothirds of the voters cast their ballots for the abolition of the monarchy, and thus the third Greek Republic was founded...
...in German literature, has lived for the past year in Germany...
...His most recent book is The New Journalism...
...They expected at a minimum the removal and trial of all those, whether military or civilian, who had risen to power through collaboration with the dictatorship...
...These few remarks on the arts in contemporary Greece are only meant to convey a general impression of the cultural flowering that has accompanied political liberty...
...On that occasion, projuntaists, royalists, fascists, old-fashioned reactionaries of all kinds, came together in a demonstration of strength...
...The most significant of the resulting splinter groups is the Socialist Course (Sosialistiki Poreia), a partial continuation of the heroic Democratic Defense that distinguished itself in the antijunta resistance...
...Public authorities, organizations, and institutions are perceived as stumbling blocks to be evaded or cheated—at all costs to be avoided if you want to achieve anything...
...It is obvious that the Greek economy cannot continue to be geared to the requirements of foreign investment and multinational monopolies...
...This, added to Karamanlis' dynamism as a vote-getter, explains the rise in conservative votes from 35 percent in 1964...
...They may be called conservative liberals, and their work in the antijunta resistance inspired them with a clear commitment to the democratic process The newspaper Kathemerini speaks for them and they represent the best the right can offer...
...PASOK emerged as the second largest party with 25.33 percent of the vote and 92 seats, thus becoming the main opposition...
...Thus the prevailing stalemate remains...
...80 Postscript Voting, in the Greek election last November 20th, was heavy and orderly despite bad weather—the turnout 78 percent of the registered vote...
...This mythology is belied not only by his unwillingness to take bold steps toward dejuntaization, but also by his role within his own party...
...A democratization of society—that is the crux of the matter...
...1961-62...
...MICHAEL BERNICK, a law student at the University of California, Berkeley, is working with the California State Office of Volunteerism, trying to put into practice some of the ideas outlined in his article...
...This essay is based on a paper presented at a meeting of the Greek Study Group, Center for European Studies, Harvard University...
...The rural migrants form an alienated mass of new urbanites, living on parasitic jobs and very small incomes...
...It has inherited most of the traditional Communist strength at the grass roots and has taken over the organizational structure of the old party...
...Firm control will have to be exercised over these foreign concessions, and they will have to be heavily taxed...
...A program of industrial development might have emancipated the Greek economy and rid it of its parasitic existence...
...PASC'HALIS M. KITROMILIDES is a teaching fellow and doing research at the Department of Government and the Center for European studies of Harvard University...
...It has the largest and best disciplined youth movement in Greece (Communist Youth of Greece—KNE...
...A few tightly knit social castes, based on wealth derived from comprador economic activities (shipping, banking, and commerce, stretching throughout the Eastern Mediterranean), dominated the society...
...First, through moderniza78 tion from above, an attempt has been made to remedy the worst signs of inefficiency and corruption...
...Beyond that, they sought to dismantle the entire machinery of the parastate,* including a purge of spies and collaborators from the vast state bureaucracy, the armed and security forces, and other public agencies...
...The Alliance of Progressive and Left Forces pulled 2.72 percent and 2 seats, mostly in Athens...
...It is true that the results of long years of distorted development cannot easily be eradicated...
...Furthermore, Prime Minister Karamanlis has restored a sense of rectitude to Greek public life and, within the limits of his politics, has handled Greek foreign policy responsibly...
...Public investment could be used to finance development of the country's mineral wealth and the creation of electronic and chemical industries for which there are 79 considerable manpower reserves...
...Despite the chronic crisis that is dramatized by this internal struggle, EDIK remains a serious political force...
...The most successful response to this challenge has come in music...
...At the least, the armed forces and the police would have to be brought under effective civilian control, cracking down on conspiratorial groups in their ranks and breaking their ties with clandestine reactionary and fascist elements...
...His research includes work in the areas of political sociology, social movements, and the sociology of deviance...
...The forces of the antijunta resistance—the liberal conservatives, the liberal and social democratic center, and the spectrum of the left—had one basic demand: "dejuntaization...
...New Democracy polled 41.85 percent of the vote (173 seats), a reduction of more than 10 percentage points since 1974...
...Instead of emphasizing the productive sectors of the economy, the main stress has been on services and tourism, thus achieving one version of economic modernization but also perpetuating the old parasitic character of the Greek economy...
...Many police officers in uniform joined in this tribute to the slain torturer Their presence corroborated the fears of Greek democrats who have repeatedly expressed concern over police behavior during student or other demonstrations...
...Decision-making is often no more than a spasmodic reaction to crises...
...As a cinematographic achievement, this film can be favorably compared to Italian post-neorealism...
...In such an atmosphere, Greek culture is experiencing a new ferment...
...He is a member of the Houston chapter of DSOC...
...Bureaucratic regulations are such a maze of entanglements that any business with public authorities consumes an incredible toll in time and psychic energy...
...the Neo-Liberals polled 1.08 percent and 2 seats, mostly in Crete...
...Mesmerized by the mirage of technocratic solutions to the problems of Greek society, they advocate full membership in the European Economic Community...
...If Seferis led "the generation of the 1930s," the three new poets can be characterized as the generation of the 1950s— to a large degree their poetry reflects the mood of that period...
...Filmed partly during the dictatorship, this movie is a study of Greek history in the last 40 years, based on a contemporary reenactment of the ancient myth of the House of Atreus...
...The Communist 76 party of Greece managed to get five deputies elected to parliament and the Communist Party of Greece (Interior) two...
...No political group with parliamentary representation is arguing for complete social upheaval...
...Admission is increasingly accessible only to those who have the means to go through a very expensive preparatory system of instruction...
...This was written before the Greek elections of November 1977—the postscript afterward...
...The eighth leftist seat went to Elias Iliou, a respected senior statemsan and chairman of the reconstituted Unified Democratic Left (EDA), the party that articulated leftist views in the 1950s and 1960s...
...In the first half of 1976 the publication of the collected works of two poets active since the 1950s, Manolis Anagnostakis and Titos Patrikios, has marked the emergence of a new generation in the rich tradition of modern Greek poetry...
...ANNE FARBER is a musician who lives in New York City and teaches at the Manhattan School of Music, the Quiller-Quaile School of Music, and the 92nd Street YMHA...
...Second, through a tightly controlled system of admissions, the universities function as a system of highly selective cooptation blocking upward mobility on the basis of merit...
...This has had predictable consequences...
...Deeply entrenched structures have traditionally operated as brakes in the democratization of the Greek polity, arresting social change and providing effective conduits for the foreign manipulation of Greek politics...
...There now is reason for guarded optimism that a train of democratic change may be set in motion...
...Once the serious problems of domestic change and the crisis in Greece's relations with Turkey are resolved, the flowering of this potential could bring about a neo-Hellenic cultural renaissance...
...Two strategies have been employed to contain pressures...
...III The central problem of contemporary Greek society is posed by the urgent pressures for change, best understood as a rising aspiration for political participation...
...Today he is a towering figure in Greek politics, imbued with a messianism only too obvious in the personal manner with which he handles the country's problems...
...The restoration of democracy indeed has led to an outpouring of new literary production...
...74 Democracy" and led by Constantine Karamanlis, polled 54.5 percent of the vote, one of the largest majorities in Greek history...
...These structures have been geared to the perpetuation of a ruling class that has dominated Greece for most of its history, a ruling class that maintains itself through the army, the state bureaucracy, and the universities...
...There has been no real structural political change in Greece since the emergence of patronage-based political groupings in the 1830s and 1840s...
...It also cut into areas of traditional liberal strength in northern Greece...
...High-school teachers who are trained exclusively in this university system become the transmitters of ideological orthodoxy...
...Still, he has abided impeccably by the rules of parliamentary politics and has made possible an atmosphere of full freedom unparalleled in Greece in the last 40 years...
...But the government has been very restrained in dismantling the machinery of the parastate and much too soft on the remnants of the junta, so that the agents of reaction have been given time and opportunity to rally their forces, and to conspire against the democratic process...
...It has retained an extraordinary ideological rigidity, consisting mostly of an unwavering dedication to Moscow, and has consequently remained locked into its traditional political ghetto...
...the contrast with General de Gaulle, whom he likes to project as his model, is all too obvious...
...The Communist party of Greece—KKE—polled 9.36 percent and 11 seats, thus recapturing the traditional Communist vote in Greece...
...Upon his return to Greece, it was commonly suggested that the long years of reflection in exile had changed him from a tough practical politician into a philosphical liberal set upon democratizing Greek society...
...Although the parties of the right retained the loyalty of about half of the electorate, the clear message of the popular vote was to reinforce protest and the aspiration for change...
...The great composers who have dominated Greek music since the 1950s have been joined by a host of younger, creative musicians...
...At the same time, it is entirely reasonable to argue for a set of policies that will eventually lead to change...
...His latest book, Lazarus at the Gate: The Continuation of Poverty in America, is being published by Addison-Wesley...
...PASOK may eventually prove a catalyst for political and social change, but so far it has engaged mostly in a negative politics...
...The resistance itself cleared the ground for this revival by giving a democratic tone to Greek cultural life...
...With 13.68 percent of the vote in 1974, PASOK is the first articulate socialist movement advocating radical social change to emerge in Greece outside the Communist party...
...GEORGE ECKSTEIN, a longtime contributor to Dissent, lives in New York and writes for a number of West German and Swiss Publications and radio networks on the American social, economic, and cultural scene...
...There also might have been a step toward some economic democratization through a few standard measures of income redistribution...
...After turbulent and discouraging decades everything now seemed possible...
...Although clearly not identifying with the Soviet model, its programmatic positions include elements gleaned from Swedish social democracy, the Yugoslav autogestion, "Arab socialism," and the vague radicalism of Third World liberation movements...
...She is writing a book on the characterization of women in Western literature from antiquity to the present...
...His vision for Greece does not extend beyond that of the Neo-Europeans...
...The stage became a forum of veiled criticism and open defiance...
...Considering the chaos in which the dictatorship left the country and the very dangerous external pressures (mostly from Turkey) threatening its territorial integrity, the government of Karamanlis can be credited with considerable achievements: the country has recovered its sense of dignity, political life now is entirely free, the economy has been salvaged from seven years of mismanagement...
...This dominance was reinforced by intimate ties with the ruling classes of Great Britain and France, whose interests in the Eastern Mediterranean could best be served by a comprador economy in the area...
...His present essay will be part of a book in progress, exploring the ideas of modernism and modernisation, from Goethe's Faust to the "energy crisis" of the '70s...
...Its share of the vote showed a dramatic decline from the 52.83 percent registered by the Center Union in 1964 As it is counting among its leaders prominent activists in the resistance, it has also attracted most of the country's professional talent...
...Disenchantment has been growing...
...After the collapse of the dictatorship, the two Communist parties managed to work out a precarious alliance...
...Most of these votes were lost to the National Rally, which received 6.82 percent and 5 seats in areas of traditional conservative and royalist strength...
...It presents a view of recent history that is quite opposed to the official "line...
...HARRELL RODGERS teaches political science at the University of Houston...
...The first one was translated into English and published by Harvard University Press, 1972...
Vol. 25 • January 1978 • No. 1
