SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY
Lukes, Steven
... there is now, with the existence of a large amount of sociological research on inequality of opportunity and inequality of result, and with the resurgence of interest among moral philosophers...
...What is the upshot of all the research into inequality in contemporary societies...
...Third, human beings have the capacity for self-development...
...32 Of the inequalities characteristic of capitalism, the most obvious is that of wealth...
...others believe that intelligence is multidimensional, that it cannot be measured by a single number, and (according to many authorities) that that number in any case measures educationally and culturally specific aptitudes with limited wider applicability...
...In general, it appears entirely reasonable to conclude with Jencks that it is "wrong to argue that genetic inequality dictates a hierarchical society...
...Other explanations will be at the level of the economic system, and will focus primarily on the institution of private property, and all that protects and legitimates it, under capitalism...
...And with regard to the third question I shall briefly consider a number of arguments for the inevitability of inequality...
...cit., p. 87...
...but provided the start is fair, let there be the maximum scope for individual selfadvancement...
...What, then, of the positive way...
...But less extreme forms result from inequalities of power and privilege in all contemporary societies...
...But interference with valued activities and relationships occurs in other ways to which liberals are less sensitive— through class discrimination, remediable economic deprivation and insecurity, and what Hayek has called the "hard discipline of the market, "'s where nominally equal economic and social rights are unequally operative because of unequal but equalizable conditions and opportunities...
...117, 118...
...The stratification system has a different pattern from that in capitalist systems: social strata are distinguished by money incomes, consumption patterns, styles of life, education, use of the social services, housing, "cultural level," but there appears to be no major "break" or "big "Lane, op...
...is more equal than the U.S., 53 and Norway is substan4"Parkin, op...
...In economic terms this means that people with low incomes value extra income more than people with high incomes...
...See Parkin, op...
...48 Moreover, apart from Yugoslavia, there is no structural unemployment...
...In fact, few serious thinkers, let alone socialists, have advocated the former, 4 and all the interesting forms of egalitarianism have put content into the latter in two ways: negatively, by ruling out certain sorts of reasons as justifications for treating people unequally...
...That answer has, given certain further assumptions, far-reaching social, economic, and political implications, and points toward a society with substantially reduced inequalities, both of material and symbolic rewards and of political power...
...Eysenck suggests that "Clearly [sic] the whole course of development of a child's intellectual capabilities is largely laid down genetically," 66 yet this is strikingly contradicted by a number of twin and adoption studies...
...As Parkin suggests, in many state socialist societies highly skilled or craft manual workers enjoy a higher position in the scale of material and status rewards, and promotion prospects, than do lower white-collar employees...
...8 What, then, are the basic features of human beings that command equal consideration or respect...
...and the dubious assumption that training for these positions is sacrificial (especially since there would, presumably, be no material loss in an egalitarian society...
...How does social reality affect social ideals...
...has carried income equalization very far within the socialist bloc, especially through the redistributive effects of collective consumption ' 14 whereas Yugoslavia has seen a marked widening of the span of incomes and life-chances, with the introduction of "market socialism," as to a lesser extent did Czechoslovakia in the later 1960s...
...Conclusions FORTUNATELY, this is not the place to enter into the whole question of the "socialist transition...
...that "individual differences, which are a source of social energy, are more likely to ripen and find expression if social inequalities are, as far as practicable, diminished...
...Charles Taylor, "Socialism and Weltanschauung," The Socialist Idea (see special note on this page...
...and the U.S.S.R...
...We deny his status as an autonomous person to the extent that we allow our attitudes to him to be dictated solely by some contingent and socially defined attribute of him, such as his "merit" or success or occupational role or place in the social order—or what Tawney called "the tedious vulgarities of income and social position...
...It endorses and serves to perpetuate those very structures of inequality, characterized by competition and emulation, of which equality of respect makes lightand, practiced seriously, it would abolish...
...and (3) IQ is not a major determinant of economic and social success...
...56See Michalina Vaughan, "Poland," in Margaret Scotford Archer and Salvador Giner (eds...
...cit., pp...
...See A. B. Atkinson, Unequal Shares: Wealth in Britain (London: Allen Lane and Penguin, 1972), pp...
...Crosland wrote: The essential thing is that every citizen should have an equal chance—that is his basic democratic right...
...7"Ibid., p. 103...
...37 Atkinson, op...
...cit., p. 26...
...nor is it plausible to suggest that the range and scope of actual inequalities, such as those surveyed in the previous section of this essay, can be explained in this beneficently functional manner...
...78Ibid., p. 102...
...17 Second, one manifestly fails to respect someone if one invades his private space and interferes, without good reason, with his valued activities and relationships (and above all with his inner self...
...bid., pp...
...37-38...
...2. Adequate performance in these positions requires appropriate talents and training...
...119-20...
...The hardest are those that appeal to biological and psychological data, which, it is argued, set sharp limits to the possibility of implementing egalitarian social ideals: "biology," writes Eysenck, "sets an absolute barrier to egalitarianism...
...Indeed the continuous traffic up and down would inevitably make society more mobile and dynamic, and so less class-bound...
...t It advances the following propositions: 1. Certain positions in any society are functionally more important than others...
...the idea of a society in which all distinctions of rank between men are abolished transcends what is sociologically possible and has its place in the sphere of poetic imagination alone.' The thesis is essentially this: that "(1) every society is a moral community, and therefore recognises norms which regulate the conduct of its members...
...By this I mean that everyone has the capacity to develop in himself some characteristic human excellence or excellences— whether intellectual, aesthetic or moral, theoretical or practical, personal or public, and so on...
...in capacity and character but they are equally entitled as human beings to consideration and respect, and...
...cit., p. 78...
...Other factors explaining the differences between income distributions in different countries, and in the same country over time, are the activities of the central government and local authorities in allocating taxes and distributing benefits, the control of entry into occupa341bid...
...158 STEVEN LUKES and state socialist, that constitutes perhaps the strongest argument against the structured inequalities they exhibit...
...36 It has been estimated that, equally divided, the yield from private property would substantially change the overall income distribution, providing a married couple with something over £ 9.00 a week...
...The first is that of "convergence," according to "the logic of industrialism...
...and the present author's Power: A Radical View (London: Macmillan, 1974), and "Political Ritual and Social Integration," Sociology (forthcoming...
...cit., pp...
...on the other hand, one may seek to account for the allocation of rewards and privileges to different social positions...
...SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 161 siderable because it "leads to unequal incomes, and concentrates control over the economy in a few hands...
...What is desirable, in the light of the actual, and what appears possible...
...so does the hierarchy of political power and authority, for political authority in modern society is largely exercised as a full-time occupation...
...22 Individuals, Tawney argued differ profoundly...
...Kerr et al., Industrialism and Industrial Man (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960...
...esting instance of the latter is furnished by Ralf Dahrendorf...
...215-40...
...Hermstein, IQ in the Meritocracy (London: Allen Lane, and Penguin, 1973...
...Thus under22Op...
...It does not follow from the mere existence of social norms and the fact that their enforcement discriminates against those who do not or cannot (because of their social position) conform to them that a societywide system of inequality and "rank order of social status" are "bound to emerge...
...But the Davis—Moore theory does not specify any particular range of inequality as functionally necessary—or rather, it all too easily serves to justify any such range which its proponents may seek to defend or establish...
...There is, of course, considerable room for differences 156 STEVEN LUKES about which of these activities and relationships are of most value and about what kind of value they have, and indeed about which of them people should be left alone to engage in...
...On the other hand, there is no direct inheritance of such rights, as with private property, although there is evidence of de facto inheritance of educational privileges...
...The article appears here with the kind permission of the publishers...
...As for status inequality (allowing for the "softness" of the data and their paucity for socialist systems, except Poland), various studies suggest a common structure of occupational prestige...
...It certainly has not been established that one can extrapolate from genetic determinants of differences within a population to explain mean differences between populations...
...41 Parkin, op...
...312-25, and Dissent, Summer 1972...
...And third, are these inequalities ineradicable, or eradicable only at an unacceptable cost...
...The Realities of Inequality CONTEMPORARY INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES manifest structured inequalities of such conditions, and of much else besides, such as access to education, social services and other public benefits, economic security, promotion prospects, etc...
...equally—and in particular for according them equal income and wealth—is the utilitarian argument for attaining the maximum aggregate satisfaction, on the assumption of diminishing marginal utility: as Dalton put it, an "unequal distribution of a given amount of purchasing power among a given number of people is .. . likely to be a wasteful distribution from the point of view of economic welfare...
...43 As for status inequality, such evidence as exists appears to point away from the thesis of an accommodative embourgeoisement of affluent workers and increasingly toward different forms of polarization between what Kerr terms "the managers" and the "managed...
...But the conclusion does not follow from the premises...
...The relevance of these questions to the subject of this essay needs no explanation...
...Again, where it is possible to make certain types of work more challenging and require a greater development of skill or talent or responsibility, it is a denial of human respect to confine workers within menial, one-sided, and tedious tasks...
...3 It is what Tawney intended when he wrote of an egalitarian society as one in which "money and position count for less, and the quality of human personalities for more, " 14 and what George Orwell was thinking of when he wrote of "breathing the air of equality" in revolutionary Spain, with "no boss-class, no menialclass, no beggars, no prostitutes, no lawyers, no priests, no boot-licking, no cap-touching...
...a"See Atkinson, op...
...80 ff...
...But what seems indisputable is that there is a range of such activities and relationships, in some of which all persons have the capacity to engage and to which they attach value...
...24 I have argued, then, that certain basic human needs and capacities provide at least part of the ground for equality of respect, and give some content to that notion of "respect," and I have further suggested that a society practicing equal respect would be one in which there were no barriers to reciprocal relations between relatively autonomous persons, who see each other and themselves as such, who are equally free from political control, social pressure, and economic deprivation and insecurity to engage in valued pursuits, and who have equal access to the means of selfdevelopment...
...Finally, one also importantly fails to respect someone if one limits or restricts his opportunities to realize his capacities of self-development...
...But three myths, prevalent in recent times, are belied by the evidence...
...cit., Appendix A. SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 165 has been established (at least for the U.S...
...29 As for income, there appears to be a remarkable similarity in capitalist and Communist societies in the structure of earnings—more precisely, in the distribution of pre-tax money wages or salaries of fully employed male adult workers in all industries but farming...
...and his faculties work easily and actively...
...48Lane, op...
...For, as we have argued, the principle of equal respect requires, in Tawney's words, that society's organization be planned so that "whether their powers are great or small, all its members may be equally enabled to make the best of such powers as they possess...
...elementary or university teachers...
...Others speak of man's "inherent dignity," "intrinsic or infinite value," or "human worth...
...In this view, all human beings have certain basic features that entitle them to be considered or respected as equals, and this is seen as implying practical policies for implementing substantial political, social, and economic equality...
...A further weakness of the theory is its assumption that unequal rewards (defined in a most culturespecific way) are the only possible means of mobilizing qualified individuals into adequately performing important jobs...
...For Christians the answer is that they are all children of God, for Kant that they are rational wills and thus members of the Kingdom of Ends, for classical liberals that they share "common rights to which they are called by nature, "9 for many socialists and anarchists that they share a "common humanity...
...p. 69...
...It may be objected that, since people have these needs and capacities to different degrees, they are therefore worthy of unequal respect...
...51 Thus the status hierarchy does not appear to reflect and reinforce a dichotomous class structure on the Western capitalist model (though Machonin provides conflicting evidence on this point from Czechoslovakia...
...Sociological arguments for the inevitability of inequality are of two broad types...
...and on political intervention, allocating rewards and privileges, in accordance with the ruling elite's policy objectives, under state socialism...
...cit., pp...
...Liberals characteristically attack such invasions of liberty, especially in nonliberal societies, when they take the form of political authoritarianism, bureaucratic tyranny, social pressures to conformity, religious and racial discrimination...
...T0Jbid., p. 72...
...For an English summary of Machonin and his associates' full-scale study of this subject, see Ernest Gellner, "The Pluralist Anti-levelers of Prague," European Journal of Sociology, 12 (1971), pp...
...that (1) social class is not, pace Eysenck, "determined strongly" by IQ...
...162 STEVEN LUKES significant difference in the system of social stratification compared to Western industrial societies is the absence of a private propertied class possessing great concentrations of wealth...
...Condorcet, Sketch for the Progress of the Human Mind [1793], transl...
...cit., p. 49...
...4. It is necessary (a) to induce those with the requisite talents to undergo the sacrifice of acquiring the appropriate training...
...conversely, a tendency toward political pluralism, albeit of a highly restricted and managed type, has been observed in Communist systems...
...This is misleading insofar as it suggests a continuing trend in the development of industrial societies toward greater overall economic equality, toward an ever-increasing consistency of stratification systems around the occupational order (e.g., toward the congruence of middle incomes and middle-class life-style and status), and toward a uniform pattern of social mobility...
...45See Westergaard and Resler, op...
...Property, in the sense of legal ownership, is, of course, largely absent: as Lane writes, "the really 43 D. Wedderburn and C. Craig, "Relative Deprivation in Work," paper presented at the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Exeter, 1969), cited in Parkin, op...
...I merely wish to conclude this essay with three brief observations...
...June Barraclough (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1955), p. 184...
...Since all have the same needs and the same faculties, let them henceforth have the same education and the same diet...
...It leaves out of account the intrinsic benefits of different positions, in relation to the expectations, aptitudes, and aspirations of different individuals (potential surgeons being anyway attracted by practicing surgery and potential carpenters by carpentry...
...34 The most recent study of the subject, in Britain ' 35 estimates that the top 5 percent of wealth-holders own between one-half and three-quarters of the total personal wealth...
...Ibid., p. 153...
...Nothing he says rules out the empirical possibility of a society containing a plurality of norms, each conferring and withholding status and prestige (so that gossiping neighbors look down on professional women, and vice versa), without themselves being ranked within a single system of inequality or stratification...
...44C...
...In fact, of course, these two strands are often intertwined in socialist theory and pratice...
...Christopher Jencks et al., Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effects of Family and Schooling in America (London: Allen Lane, Penguin, 1974), pp...
...33P...
...60 Eysenck maintains that "regression to the mean" through social mobility and the redistribution of genes prevents social classes from calcifying into hereditary castes, and he concludes that a "society which would come as near to our egalitarian desires as is biologically attainable would give the greatest scope possible to this social mobility...
...S. Lukes...
...is 60:112.6, and even the most extreme estimate of the total range is substantially less than what is widely accepted as true of the U.S...
...H. Gordon Skilling and Franklyn Griffiths, eds., Interest Groups in Soviet Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971...
...S"Wiles and Markowski, art...
...cit., p. 144 and his article, "Class Stratification in Socialist Societies," British Journal of Sociology, December 1969...
...Soviet Studies, 22 (1971), p. 344...
...tions by professional associations and unions, national rates of economic growth, level of unemployment, etc...
...cit., p. 77, and Lydall, op...
...The first is that the massive inequalities of power and privilege outlined in the second part are, for many socialists, intolerable mainly because they violate something like the principle of equal respect delineated in the first part—a principle that derives from liberal premises, but takes them seriously...
...cit., p. 149...
...67-68 (trans...
...Other peculiarities relate to racial, religious, and linguistic factors (the U.S., Northern Ireland, Canada), where inconsistencies between income and status hierarchies are to be seen, and long-range historical factors, as for example in Britain, where the stratification takes a distinctive form and the concentration of wealth is especially high.ss The explanation of inequality can be approached in either of two ways...
...But, although there are well-known arguments (an example of which we shall consider) to the effect that unequal rewards, together with equal opportunity to reap them, have essential economic and social functions, they are in tension with the social, political, and economic implications of the principle of equal respect, which, as we have seen, points toward greater equality in the conditions of life, that is, of wealth, income, status, and power...
...cit., p. 127...
...125-26...
...Finally, brief mention should be made of inequalities characteristic of particular societies within these two broad systems...
...1 "Friedrich A. Hayek, Individualism, True and False (Dublin: Hodges, Figgis & Co., and Oxford: Blackwell, 1946), p. 24...
...Ibid., p. 108...
...The first part is simply an argument against discrimination, against the failure to "bring the means of a good life within the reach of all...
...Davis and Moore's "functionalist theory of stratification" seeks to demonstrate "the universal necessity which calls forth stratification in any social system...
...2) need...
...It is, incidentally, noteworthy that liberal reformers in East European countries have used arguments analogous to Davis's and Moore's to justify the widening of income differentials (as did Stalin in the 1930s...
...Poland and West Germany 0.879...
...SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 157 such and such a man...
...1 "William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its influence on Morals and Happiness [1793], 3rd edition, vol...
...159, 224...
...80 ""Parkin, op...
...This interpretation may be called the principle 6H...
...80Ibid., p. 183...
...35 Atkinson, op...
...ii) "humor and diversion...
...The hierarchy of prestige strata and the hierarchy of economic classes have their roots in the occupational structure...
...It has been justly said that "capitalism produces extremely rich people with a great deal of capital, and this is the most striking difference between the two systems...
...P. Machonin, "Social Stratification in Contemporary Czechoslovakia," American Journal of Sociology, 75 (1970), pp...
...First, what are the "social ideals" of equality...
...On the one hand, there are basic human needs—minimally, the means to life and health—without which they could not function in a recognizably human manner...
...And it is perhaps the inclination to see the accumulated weight of historical evidence for the apparent need to pay such costs—from the rise of Stalin to the fall of Allende—as a challenge rather than as a source of despair that is, in the end, the distinguishing mark of an egalitarian socialist...
...Dahrendorf's theory seeks to demonstrate that "inequalities among men follow from the very concept of societies as moral communities...
...a Dahrendorf slides unaccountably from the undoubted truth that within groups norms are enforced that discriminate against certain persons and positions (he cites the example of gossiping neighbors making the professional woman an outsider) to the unsupported claim that, within society as a whole, a system of inequality between groups and positions is inevitable...
...In other words, human beings have the capacity to act with relative autonomy and to be or become relatively self-determining, to become conscious of the forces determining or affecting them, and either consciously to submit to them or become independent of them...
...There has, it is true, been a long-term trend toward a greater spread of such wealth, but this has mainly been from the top 1 percent to the next 2-5 percent (i.e., to relatives and others), as a defense against taxation...
...to live in a society of equals tends in general to make a man's spirits expand...
...It is the systematic and cumulative denial of such opportunities to the less favored citizens of stratified societies, both capitalist "lbid., pp...
...SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 155 of equality of consideration or respect...
...In his latest book, he affirms the hypothesis that "something between one-half and threefourths of the average IQ difference between sslbid., p. 270...
...42See Goldthorpe, art...
...There is, first, the capacity of human beings to form intentions and purposes, to become aware of alternatives and choose between them, and to acquire control over their own behavior by becoming conscious of the forces determining it, both internally, as with unconscious desires and motives, and externally, as with the pressures exerted by the norms they follow or the roles they fill...
...40 In general, the social democratic "welfare approach" brings about little disturbance of the stratification system"— and some have claimed that there is increasing inequality at its base, with the growth of an underclass of unemployed and unemployables...
...15 George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (London: Secker & Warburg, 1938, and Penguin, 1962) p. 66...
...21 Tawney made the same assumption, arguing 19Tawney, op...
...The second part of this argument against structured inequalities is that they provide an unfavorable climate for the self-development of ordinary people...
...The distinction was well drawn by Tawney when he contrasted "the claim for an open road to individual advancement" with the desire "to narrow the space between valley and peak...
...and the most insidious and decisive way of denying the autonomy of persons is to diminish or restrict their opportunity to increase their consciousness of their situation and activities...
...Cit., p. 111...
...Some such explanations will be historically and geographically specific...
...Finally, Jensen, observing that some racial groups, especially American whites and blacks, differ markedly in their distribution of IQ scores (the mean IQ differing from 10 to 15 points), concludes that, since no known environmental factors can explain such differences, their explanation must be largely genetic...
...The second is that the arguments for the unrealizability of equality considered in the third part all fail to show that these inequalities are ineradicable, whether on psychological or sociological grounds...
...s' Some writers have sought explanations of inequality at a higher level still: according to them social inequalities arise from the functional prerequisites or basic features of all human societies, or, more universally still, from the genetic, biological, or psychological differentiation of human nature itself...
...First the estimate of 80 percent genetic determination of IQ is controversial...
...Others suggest a substantially lower figure...
...Finally, I turn to the argument that inequality is eradicable only at an unacceptable cost...
...21 Matthew Arnold, "Democracy" [18611 in Lionel Trilling, ed., The Portable Matthew Arnold (New York: Viking Press, 1949), pp...
...73 CONTROVERSY over this theory has raged tor well over two decades," and it is fair to say that the balance of the argument has largely lain with the theory's critics...
...47 The current picture is one of a substantially narrower range of money incomes in socialist than in capitalist societies: thus, for example, the ratio of the lowest wage to the average in the U.S.S.R...
...On the one hand, one may seek to explain why individuals attain different positions, rewards and privileges...
...Given this fundamental class inequality in the social and economic order, a pluralist or democratic political structure works to the advantage of the dominant class...
...J. D. Wiles and S. Markowski, "Income Distribution under Communism and Capitalism: Some Facts about Poland, the U.K., the U.S.A...
...sl Herrnstein, 82 by contrast, ignores "regression to the mean" and stresses the process of "assortative mating" between partners of similar IQ levels, and he foresees a future in which, as the environment becomes more favorable to the development of intelligence, social mobility increases, and technological advance sets a higher premium on intelligence, social classes will become ever more castelike, stratifying society into a hereditary meritocracy...
...the second upon inequality of reward among occupational positions...
...37 Similar (though less extreme) concentrations of property ownership are found in other capitalist countries...
...34Ibid., p. 353...
...James S. Coleman, "Equality of Opportunity and Equality of Results," Harvard Educational Review, 43 (February 1973), p. 137...
...Ibid., p. 184...
...Here, despite the pluralistic tendencies identified by certain Western observers, the explicitly hierarchical, monistic, and all-pervasive structure of party control, increasingly manned by the white-collar intelligentsia, is altogether distinctive...
...In addition, we assume that the law of diminishing returns applies to most of the good things in life...
...But in all these cases, no independent reasons are given for respecting people equally— or at least none that would convince a skeptic disposed to do so unequally, according to, say, birth or merit...
...2 In assessing the contemporary viability of the socialist idea, then, the three questions raised above demand to be faced: first, why is "greater equality in the conditions of life" desirable ?3 Second, how unequal are such conditions in contemporary industrial societies, capitalist and state This article is part of The Socialist Idea: A Reappraisal, edited by Leszek Kolakowski and Stuart Hampshire, published by Basic Books, Inc., and copyright ® 1974 by the Graduate School of Contemporary European Studies, the University of Reading, England...
...72Ibid., p. 48...
...39 As for income inequality, after a temporary narrowing in the 1940s, it has remained relatively fixed and in some cases somewhat widened—both before direct taxation and (as far as one can estimate) after it...
...52 Clearly, however, the most significant contrast between the systems lies in the hierarchy of political power...
...14Ibid., p. 47...
...Third, and related to this last point, it 83 Arthur R. Jensen, Educability and Group Differences (London: Methuen, 1973), p. 363...
...I have argued that these three characteristics of persons are at least part of the ground on which we accord them respect...
...The first approach implies a focus upon inequality of opportunity among persons...
...SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 163 tially more equal still, while the U.S.S.R...
...Such control and restriction is as likely to be social and economic as political, and as typical of the work situation and the family and of opportunities for education and employment as of the relation between the state and the citizen...
...Concerning the first (philosophical) question, I shall seek to suggest a modified Kantian ethical basis for the social, political, and economic equalities .socialists have traditionally sought to establish...
...59 Social class is "determined quite strongly by IQ," and educational attainment depends "closely" on IQ: "talent, merit, ability" are "largely innate factors...
...40See Westergaard and Resler, op...
...But it is arguable that there are a number of empirical features that could provide such reasons, to which, throughout their history, egalitarian doctrines have, implicitly or explicitly, appealed...
...31 As for inequalities of power, apart from the obvious differences, parallels can be seen in the differential distribution of power and authority (whether in the form of legal ownership or directive control) within "imperatively coordinated associations," such as the industrial enterprise...
...the social system was the product of the social system itself...
...11 This denial of autonomy was what William Godwin had in mind when he urged universal and equal political participation on the grounds that "Each man will thus be inspired with a consciousness of his own importance, and the slavish feelings that shrink up the soul in the presence of an imagined superior will be unknown...
...49 Thus, for example, in both Poland and Yugoslavia skilled manual positions have higher occupational prestige than do lower routine whitecollar positions...
...As Parkin observes, The fact that the humanistic ideals central to the socialist tradition have found little, if any, expression in the European socialist states highlights an unresolved dilemma...
...27See J. H. Goldthorpe, "Social Stratification in Industrial Society," reprinted in R. Bendix and S. M. Lipset, eds., Class, Status and Power: Social Stratification in Comparative Perspective, 2nd edition, (London: Routledge, 1967...
...These are all transcendental answers, whether religious or secular...
...American Negroes and whites is attributable to genetic factors, and the remainder to environmental factors and their interaction with the genetic differences.' '63 He attaches much importance to this conclusion, since he believes that IQ is a major determinant of success in our society...
...70 This is so even if Jensen should turn out to be nearer the truth than Jencks, and heredity does substantially constrain the maximum achievable by different individuals in the best of all possible environments...
...23 His case was that establishing "the largest possible measure of equality of environment, and circumstance, and opportunity," was a precondition for ensuring "that these diversities of gifts may come to fruition...
...On the other hand, there are certain basic capacities (of which more below), characteristic of human beings, whose realization is essential to their enjoyment of freedom...
...b) to attract them to the functionally important positions...
...But historical experience of this approach has been pretty uniform: gross abuses of constitutional rights, terrorism and coercion, and, even when these latter are relaxed, the continuance of party control over all areas of social life, including literature and the arts...
...In any case, egalitarians and socialists have not rested their case on this precarious basis alone: there is an alternative tradition of thought on the subject, of which Rousseau is the classical figure and Rawls the major contemporary exponent, which offers an alternative interpretation of equality and which appeals to deeper values than the utilitarian...
...3. Some such talents are scarce in any population...
...What I shall try to do is to offer some suggestions as to how they might be answered...
...4 Inequalities of political power in capitalist societies are of course manifest in the inequalities already considered, since these represent the power of the dominant class to command a disproportionate share of rewards and privileges vis-à-vis the subordinate class...
...Clearly, I cannot begin to answer these momentous questions here...
...We fail to respect someone by denying his autonomy, not only when we control or dominate his will, but also when we unreasonably restrict the range of alternatives between which he can choose...
...26 By contrast, the egalitarian socialist focuses on equalizing the rewards and privileges attached to different positions, not on widening the competition for them...
...2) educational attainment depends less on IQ than on family background...
...32See, e.g...
...In this sense, Tawney saw a central aim of "measures correcting inequalities or neutralizing their effects" as increasing "the range of alternatives open to ordinary men, and the capacity of the latter to follow their own preferences in choosing between them...
...It is easy to think of extreme forms of such a denial, as in the prison camps described by Solzhenitsyn or in the total institutions described by Erving Goffman...
...And third, what bearing does the answer to the second question have on that to the first...
...85 Again, children's test scores are not immune to considerable improvement by effecting changes in their environment...
...Historically, the fight for equality has taken the form of attacking specific inequalities and their alleged justifications: inequalities of privilege and power—legal and political, then social and economic—have been attacked as unjustifiable, because arbitrary, capricious, or irrational...
...Finally, there are arguments of-a different order, which seek to show that the cost of implementing equality in contemporary societies are unacceptably high, because they conflict with other values...
...why should not the same portion and the same quality of nourishment suffice for each of them...
...164 STEVEN LUKES The hard-line approach to the realizability of equality is currently taken by various participants in the contemporary debate about genetics, environment, and intelligence...
...s"Parkin, O. cit., p. 147, cf...
...cit., p. 146...
...34Ibid., p. 77...
...As for the second (sociological) question, I shall briefly sketch some of the evidence about actual inequalities and the range of explanations for them...
...an inter"See Jencks, op...
...cit., p. 344...
...However, at the next level, the constraints operating on both systems come into view: the division of labor under advanced industrialism, it has been argued, creates a certain role structure inevitably accompanied by differentials of material reward, status, and power, which are in turn perpetuated by the nuclear family...
...58 H. J. Eysenck, The Inequality of Man (London: Temple Smith, 1973), p. 224...
...the well-being of a society is likely to be increased if it so plans its organization that, whether their powers are great or small, all its members may be equally enabled to make the best of such powers as they possess...
...26 C. A. R. Crosland, The Future of Socialism (London: Cape, 1956), pp...
...From this it is a short step to Bentham's dictum that society should be organized so as to provide the greatest good for the greatest number...
...150-51...
...For example, it has been suggested that inequalities are unjustifiable unless they can be shown to satisfy one or more of the following criteria: (1) merit or deserts...
...See John Westergaard and Henrietta Resler, Class in Contemporary Britain (London: Heinemann, forthcoming...
...12 It is what William Morris meant when he wrote of socialism as a "condition of equality" in which a man "would no longer take his position as the dweller in such and such a place, or the filler of such and such an office, or (as now) the owner of such and such property, but as being 10R...
...89/bid., Chapter 3, Part II...
...And it is worth observing that, in any case, genetic differences within races are far greater than those between them, accounting for 60-70 percent of all human genetic variation...
...For example, according to Sarapata, the correlation between the occupational prestige hierarchies of Poland and the U.S...
...Examples are, say, the particular circumstances explaining the exceptionally high status of Poland's intelligentsia, 56 or the cultural factors in ethnically or religiously divided communities or the longrange historical factors referred to above...
...A much-discussed example of the former is the so-called functionalist theory of stratification...
...160 STEVEN LUKES Of the patterns of inequality common to industrial societies, it appears broadly true to say that, in contrast with traditional or nonindustrial societies, "the occupational order comes increasingly to be the primary source of symbolic as well as material advantages "28 : thus The occupational structure in modern industrial society not only constitutes an important foundation for the main dimensions of social stratification, but also serves as the connecting link between different institutions and spheres of social life, and therein lies its great significance...
...84 Moreover the evidence with respect to genetic determination is far less univocal than these writers imply: "different methods of estimating the heritability of test scores yield drastically different results" and "studies of different populations yield somewhat different results...
...is 0.882, Poland and England 0.862 and Y"Frank Parkin, Class, Inequality and Political Order (London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1971), p. 39...
...But, in the absence of these justifications, such an invasion or interference is clearly a denial of human respect...
...Three such capacities appear to be of particular significance...
...Obviously, not everyone will be able to develop any given excellence to the same degree—and perhaps, pace Marx, not all will be able to develop them in a manysided, all-round fashion...
...25 The former aspiration has, of course, a central place in the history of socialism: it represents the meritocratic policy of widening the social base of recruitment to privileged positions, which has always been the central plank of social democracy...
...It follows that if we want to maximize the satisfaction of the population, the best way to divide any given amount of money is to make everyone's income the same...
...87 Second, psychologists notoriously differ about what IQ tests measure: some, such as Jensen, Herrnstein, and Eysenck, believe it measures some basic property of the intellect...
...I have (perhaps surprisingly) found the ideas of certain English egalitarians and socialists (Arnold, Morris, Tawney, Cole, Orwell) especially helpful...
...29P...
...SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 167 sarily discriminates between persons and social positions, and this he fails to do...
...38 This is accentuated by the fact that the very rich tend to hold their wealth in the form of company shares and real property yielding a higher return than the assets typically owned by small savers...
...166 STEVEN LUKES important" positions, as distinct from those that a given society values as important (bankers or miners...
...cit., p. 254...
...Egalitarianism seems to require a political system in which the state is able continually to hold in check those social and occupational groups which, by virtue of their skills or education or personal attributes, might otherwise attempt to stake claims to a disproportionate share of society's rewards...
...The unsurprising answer is that, whatever else it involves, respecting them involves treating them as (actually or potentially) autonomous, as requiring a free and secure space for the pursuit of valued activities and relationships, and as capable of self-development...
...Ibid., p. 71...
...and (iii) "self-respect and ego expansion.' ' 72 6. These differential incentives (unequal rewards) constitute social inequality, which, in securing that the most talented individuals occupy and adequately perform in the functionally important positions, fulfills a necessary function in any society: "Social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies insure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons...
...Lane, op...
...725-41...
...However, I should conclude this section by noting an important tension between the notion of equality of respect, as discussed here, and that of "equality of opportunity," as normally understood...
...89 Moreover it appears indisputable that present data and techniques cannot resolve this issue...
...Also, it ignores the point that a stratified society itself restricts the availability of talent, and the further point that an advanced industrial society is in principle able substantially to increase the availability of talent and training...
...cit., pp...
...With respect to income inequality, this has gone through a number of phases in all socialist regimes...
...Social existence in part determines consciousness...
...Contemporary Europe: Class, Status and Power (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971...
...The third myth is the official Communist (especially Soviet) interpretation of state socialist societies, which, while acknowledging the existence of nonantagonistic classes (working class and peasantry) and the stratum of the intelligentsia—and the existence of inequalities of income, consumption goods, education, etc., between rural and urban population and between occupational strata—maintains that these inequalities are in the process of continuing decline (the so-called process of sblizhenie, or "drawing together"), denies that there is a hierarchy of status, and is silent about the hierarchy of power...
...or even a distinct class stratification...
...respect, and that respecting persons precisely consists in doing all that is necessary and possible to satisfy their basic needs and to maintain and enhance their basic capacities (and to discriminate between them in this regard is to fail to show them equal respect...
...In the foregoing, I have implicitly concentrated on the second question and I have also implicitly suggested a range of explanations for inequality at different levels...
...But to this it may be replied that i.t is the existence of the needs and capacities, not the degree to which the former are met and the latter realized or realizable, that elicits the The argument that follows, spelling out the principle of equal respect, is taken from the present author's Individualism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973), Part III...
...It has been interpreted as based either on the principle of absolute and unconditional equality—" treat everyone equally in every respect"— or else on the empty formal principle, "treat people equally unless there are relevant or sufficient reasons for treating them unequally...
...cit., pp...
...while, to live in a society of superiors, although it may occasionally be a very good discipline, yet in general tends to tame the spirits and to make the play of the faculties less secure and active...
...35-36...
...Ibid., p. 103...
...bid., pp...
...Second, human beings have the capacity to think thoughts, perform actions, develop involvements, and engage in relationships to which they attach value but which require a certain area of noninterference in order to have that value...
...But "need" is a concept to which appeal cannot be made beyond this basic (if rising) minimum level: beyond that point, it becomes a question of individuals' entitlement to the means of realizing certain basic capacities...
...with Stalin's attacks on "equality mongering") in order to increase material incentives, followed by a subsequent move toward greater equality...
...79 What this argument perhaps suggests, Parkin writes, is that socialist egalitarianism is not readily compatible with a pluralist political order of the classic western type...
...A forceful contemporary formulation is that of Frank Parkin, who argues that A political system which guarantees constitutional rights for groups to organise in defence of their interests is almost bound to favour the privileged at the expense of the disprivileged...
...214-15...
...Parkin, op...
...socialist, and what explains these inequalities...
...Some patterns of inequality appear to be common to all such societies, both capitalist and state socialist, others to the one system or the other, yet others to particular countries...
...There would then be nothing improper in either a high continuous status ladder...
...33 Moreover, such capital "means so much more than the income it provides: security, diminished pressure to save and (in very large quantities) political power...
...Why assume that a given amount of purchasing power yields equal utility for everyone (assuming one could make the interpersonal comparison), and why assume that it diminishes as income or wealth increases...
...Finally, to the extent to which the thesis does remain valid, at least for contemporary industrial societies— that is, insofar as unequal rewards are needed so that certain jobs are adequately filled—this in no way implies a societywide system of structured social inequality, linking wealth, income, status, and power (indeed, it would probably imply the reverse...
...The assumption that this is so was well expressed by Matthew Arnold, who claimed that for the common bulk of mankind...
...A full consideration of this topic would also involve an examination of all the means available to the former to preserve its rewards and privileges...
...But we also cease to respect someone when we fail to treat him as an agent and a chooser, as a self from which actions and choices emanate, when we see him and consequently treat him, not as a person, but as merely the bearer of a title or the occupant of a role, or as merely a means to securing a certain end, or, worst of all, as merely an object...
...The former will always have greater organising capacities and facilities than the latter, such that the competition for rewards between different classes is never an equal contest...
...1 (London, 1798) pp...
...H. Tawney, Equality, 4th edition, 1952 (London: Allen & Unwin, 1931), p. 260...
...To support that claim he would need to show the necessity of societywide norms whose enforcement neces75 Ralf Dahrendorf, "On the Origin of Social Inequality," in P. Laslett and W. G. Runciman, eds., Philosophy, Politics and Society: Second Series (Oxford: Blackwell, 1962), p. 107...
...Enjoyments and delights of all kinds, intellectual and artistic activities, love and friendship are examples: all these require a space free and secure from external invasion or surveillance in order to flourish...
...According to Jencks it is something like 45 percent: Jencks and his colleagues estimate that "genotype explains about 45 percent of the variance in IQ scores, that environment explains about 35 percent, and that the correlation between genotype and environment explains the remaining 20 percent...
...not only within governmental institutions, but within the administrative service, the educational system, industry, the law, mass communications, etc...
...What counts as worthy of admiration will be subject to moral disagreement and cultural variation, but it is arguable that there is a delimited range of human excellences that are intrinsically admirable, though the forms they take differ from society to society, and that all human beings are capable of achieving some of them to some degree...
...Having done these things, it will be clear to even the most sympathetic reader that everything remains to be done...
...The ideal of equality has always been central to the socialist tradition: thus Professor Taylor specifies "greater equality in the conditions of life" as the first goal of "any socialist in a Western country today...
...Parkin suggests that the overall reward hierarchy is as follows: "(1) Whitecollar intelligentsia (i.e., professional, managerial and administrative positions), (2) Skilled manual positions, (3) Lower or unqualified white-collar positions, (4) Unskilled manual positions,"' and that the major break lies between the skilled and the unskilled.S° Thus "the most obvious break in the reward hierarchy occurs along the line separating the qualified professional, managerial and technical positions from the rest of the occupational order...
...30 There is a broad relationship between the hierarchy of skills and knowledge demanded by occupations on the one hand, and the hierarchy of material rewards on the other (though there is a narrower range of differentials under command than market economies), and, related to this, there are certain more specific trends: high rewards accruing to those in management and the technically highly qualified and skilled, and a relative decline in the rewards of clerical work...
...M. Blau and O. D. Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York: John Wiley, 1967), p. 7. 30See H. F. Lydall, The Structure of Earnings (London:: Oxford University Press, 1968...
...442-43...
...There is the evident difficulty of identifying the "functionally 71 K. Davis and W. E. Moore, "Some Principles of Stratification" in Bendix and Lipset, Class Status and Power (see n. 27), p. 47...
...moreover, these welfare facilities often tend to favor more privileged groups...
...46 On the other hand, following Djilas, one can argue that the white-collar intelligentsia, and the apparatchiki above all, exercise rights of control over the use and products of collective property and expropriate surplus value from the subordinate class...
...168 STEVEN LUKES...
...154 The Social Ideals of Equality THE IDEAL OF EQUALITY has been made to seem absurd in either of two opposing ways...
...The Realizability of Equality THIS LEADS US naturally to the question of the alleged inevitability of inequality...
...not only through coercive power but also through "the mobilization of bias," operating anonymously through the structure of institutions (especially private property and the market), the rituals of social and political life, and ideological assumptions...
...C.A.R...
...cit., p. 315...
...and positively, by advancing, or presupposing, a set of reasons for treating them equally...
...16 But more is involved in respecting autonomy than looking behind the surface of socially defined titles or labels and seeing the world (and the labels) from the agent's point of view...
...cit., p. 135...
...and it fails in general to consider functional alternatives to a system of unequal rewards—such as intrinsic job satisfaction, the desire for knowledge, skills, and authority, an ethos of social or public service and a diminution of acquisitiveness and status-seeking, the use of negotiation, persuasion or direct planning, changes in the organization of work and decision-making, and so on...
...cit., p. 653...
...Nonmanual workers "even when they diverge are more like one another than they are like manual workers" and "the big divide still comes between manual workers on the one hand and nonmanual grades on the other...
...84Jencks, op...
...5 Respecting persons in this way, as Bernard Williams has well put it, implies that they be "abstracted from certain conspicuous structures of inequality" in which they are found and seen, "not merely under professional, social, or technical titles, but with consideration of their own views and purposes," as "conscious beings who necessarily have intentions and purposes and see what they are doing in a certain light...
...There are a number of such arguments (of which I shall cite some typical contemporary examples), ranging from the "hard" to the "soft...
...Examples of where it can be justifiable so to interfere are in cases, say, of imprisonment or conscription during wartime—where it may be claimed that there is "good reason" for interference and thus no denial of respect insofar as they are necessary infringements of a person's freedom, either to preserve the freedom of others, or his own and others' in the long run, or as the only way of realizing other cherished values...
...82R...
...there is now, with the existence of a large amount of sociological research on inequality of opportunity and inequality of result, and with the resurgence of interest among moral philosophers in inequality, as manifested in John Rawls's work, the possibility of serious examination of social ideals and social reality in this area...
...WHAT, we may ask, constitutes a denial of such respect...
...9-10...
...88 Fourth, the difference in average IQ-test performance between blacks and whites is consistent with all three of the following hypotheses: that it is explained by genes, by environment, and by both...
...benefits, life-cycle promotion and career opportunities, long-term economic stability (including for many guaranteed salary increases), working environment, freedom of movement and from supervision, etc...
...The analogy between "legal" and "sociological" ownership cannot be taken too far, but clearly there is a considerable hierarchy of monetary privilege and power based upon such authority roles and above all upon party membership...
...They are content with the same sun and the same air for all...
...Obviously, not all exercise this capacity to an equal degree, but all, except the mentally defective or deranged, possess it...
...19 Thus the principal argument against a discriminatory educational system is not that it creates social inequality (which, as Jencks shows, it scarcely does, serving "primarily to legitimize inequality, not to create it, "20) but rather that it blocks the self-development of the less favored and thereby fails to respect them...
...See G. A. Huaco, The Functionalist Theory of Stratification: Two Decades of Controversy," Inquiry, 9 (Fall 1966), pp...
...58 Then there are sociological arguments that maintain inequalities are functional to, or inherent in, all possible social systems— or less strongly, in all industrial societies...
...The concentration of share ownership is even greater than that in the distribution of wealth as a whole, which is important since shares convey not only income but also rights of control, and even allowing for the increasing power of corporation managers these still remain of considerable significance...
...Manifeste des egaux [1796] in M. Leroy, ed., Les Precurseurs franpais du socialisme de Condorcet a Proudhon (Paris: Editions du temps present, 1948), pp...
...But all human beings share the capacity to realize potentialities that are worthy of admiration...
...One is that inequalities are functionally necessary for any society, the other that they are inherent in the very nature of social life...
...and (2) there have to be sanctions connected with these norms which guarantee their obligatory character by acting as rewards for conformism and penalties for deviance, " 76 from which Dahrendorf concludes that "the sanctioning of human behaviour in terms of social norms necessarily creates a system of inequality of rank and that social stratification is therefore an immediate result of the control of social behaviour by positive and negative sanctions...
...87See Jencks, op...
...72-74...
...Second, what are the "social realities" of inequality...
...Stratification under State Socialism (London: Penguin, 1971), p. 81...
...That argument really has two parts...
...Since this requires the equalization of rewards and privileges, biological differences would correlate with social positions but not with unequal rewards and privileges attaching to those positions...
...Thus, with respect to income inequality, the U.K...
...It is for this reason that respecting autonomy points toward a "single-status society" and away from the ideal of a stable hierarchy, since what keeps stable hierarchies together is the idea of necessity, that it is somehow foreordained or inevitable that there should be these orders...
...e In their recent important study of inequality, Christopher Jencks and his associates state their position as follows: We begin with the premise that every individual's happiness is of equal value...
...The general pattern is this: a highly egalitarian stage of "socialist reconstruction," followed by a substantial widening of differentials (most pronounced in the U.S.S.R...
...And the third is that the argument that the costs of implementing equality are too high is the most crucial facing any socialist today...
...16Bemard Williams, "The Idea of Equality" in P. Laslett and W. G. Runciman, eds., Philosophy, Politics and Society: Second Series (Oxford: Blackwell, 1962), pp...
...45 THE INEQUALITIES typical of state socialist societies display a different pattern...
...namely, whether it is possible to establish the political conditions for egalitarianism while also guaranteeing civil rights to all citizens within a system of "socialist legality...
...129-37...
...This argument has been voiced in many forms, by those both friendly and hostile to socialism...
...One influential argument for treating people 4Babeuf came perhaps the nearest to doing so, proclaiming, "Let there be no other difference between people than that of age or sex...
...57 Lane, op...
...5 But, quite apart from the difficulty of interpreting these criteria, especially the last, such an approach always presupposes a view of what is justifiable, that is, what are relevant and sufficient sorts of reasons for unequal treatment, and over this individuals, classes, and cultures conflict...
...Overall taxation appears to be almost neutral in relation to income and in certain cases (the U.S., West Germany) directly regressive, while redistribution through the welfare state, although it obviously aids the poor more than the rich in relative terms, is paid for by wage-earners themselves, and is mainly "horizontal" rather than "vertical"—i.e., it takes the form of a "life-cycle" transfer within social classes...
...The most effective way of holding such groups in check is by denying them the right to organise politically or in other ways to undermine social equality...
...The principle of equal respect for needs tells against all humanly alterable economic and social arrangements that discriminate between individuals' access to the means of sustenance and health (and it is not irrelevant in contemporary Britain, where there are still marked class differences in the risks of death and infant mortality...
...41 In capitalist societies that stratification system exhibits a cleavage between the manual and nonmanual categories of occupation—not merely with respect to income (here, indeed, there is substantial overlap), but with respect to a whole range of privileges and advantages: white-collar workers have strikingly better sick pay and pension schemes, holidays and other fringe 381bid., p. 251...
...JAMES S. COLEMAN' Professor Coleman's remarks raise three questions...
...Dalton, Some Aspects of Inequality of Incomes in Modern Communities (London: Routledge, 1925), cited in ibid., p. 84...
...and (c) to motivate them to perform in these positions adequately...
...Income disparities (except those based on variations in "need") will always reduce overall satisfaction, because individuals with low incomes will lose more than individuals with high incomes gain.' But this assumption is questionable...
...What forms of inequality are undesirable and what forms of equality desirable, and on what grounds...
...SOCIALISM AND EQUALITY 159 stood, it comes into conflict with equal respect, since it focuses attention upon forms of differentiation and grading, which carry status and prestige...
...5. To achieve these objectives, differential incentives must be attached to the posts in question—and these may be classified into those things which contribute to (i) "sustenance and comfort...
...Op...
...3) social benefit (and on such a basis it would be hard to justify the present extreme inequality of inherited wealth in Britain...
...This is not merely because the dominant class can more easily be mobilized in defence of its interests, but also because it has access to the all-important means of social control, both coercive and normative...
...Eysenck urges "recognition of man's biological nature, and the genetically determined inequality inevitably associated with his derivation...
...Professors Jensen, Herrnstein, and Eysenck assert that "intelligence" is mainly determined by heredity—specifically that about 80 percent of the variance in IQ scores is genetically determined...
...3 Though equality is an objective central to socialism, socialists have not, in general, been very explicit about its content or the values on which it rests...
...These claims obviously cannot be adequately considered here, but a few remarks are worth making...
...Furthermore, workers—and citizens of political society as a whole—are denied respect to the degree to which they are denied possibilities of real participation in the formulation and taking of major decisions affecting them, for they are thereby denied the opportunity to develop the human excellence of active self-government celebrated by Rousseau and John Stuart Mill and central to the various forms of classical democratic theory...
...20Op...
...Its impact is con31 Cited in David Lane, The End of Inequality...
...73Ibid., p. 48...
...81Ibid., pp...
...Such a society would not be marked by inequalities of power and privilege (which is not to say that a society without such inequalities would necessarily practice equal respect...
...divide," as under capitalism, between the manual and the nonmanual strata...
...In the context of public debate, especially about education, this latter principle is not generally taken to refer to equality of opportunity to develop individual powers or gifts, but rather equality, of opportunity to achieve scarce social rewards...
...What, then, does that respect consist of...
...181-82...
...and this idea of necessity must be eventually undermined by the growth of people's reflective consciousness about their role, still more when it is combined with the thought that what they and others have always thought about their roles in 13William Morris, Letters on Socialism [1888] (privately printed, London, 1894), Letter I, p. 5. '"Op...
...27 The second is that "affluence" in capitalist societies has eroded inequalities of income, wealth, and security of life and that the power of private capital has been tamed, from within by the "managerial revolution" and the divorce between ownership and control, and from without by the growth of the state and/or a pluralistic diffusion of power among competing interest groups...
...cit., and Parkin, op...
...since opportunities for attaining the highest status or the topmost stratum would be genuinely equal...
Vol. 22 • April 1975 • No. 2
