Socialism and the Jews
Lichtheim, George
THE FOLLOWING REMARKS have been occasioned by a recent revival of interest in the topic of socialist antiSemitism. Or, to put the matter in a different context, by a rereading of...
...ituted for Frenchmen who, in the generation following the Revolution, discovered that their ancestors had emancipated not merely the citoyen but also the bourgeois...
...Is and ought had not yet been sundered...
...IV, No...
...Nonetheless, there must have been dissensions, for in the following year Toussenel broke with the Fourierists, and the second edition of his book (1847) opened with a personal attack on Considerant, who had refused to sanction a consistently anti-Jewish orientation...
...Thus it was all the more deplorable that they had given themselves up to materialism, which was indeed a very widespread evil but had struck the deepest roots among them...
...H. Heine, A. Weil, and others are nothing but secret spies...
...This is not the place to go into the history of Syndicalism...
...don't admit them to any kind of employment...
...Capitalism, according to him, is largely a Jewish invention, whereas socialism is "a Franco-German creation, i.e., Aryan in the fullest sense of the term...
...Thilo Ramm, Die Grossen Sozialisten als Rechtsund Sozialphilosophen...
...it is for us to pave the way...
...have achieved nothing in art and science, and...
...It was indeed compatible with Marxism, but it did not necessarily follow from anything Marx had said...
...He appears to have started a fascist group called Le Faisceau in 1925, deliberately modelled upon Mussolini's regime...
...This is the standard work on the subject, written by a scholar of distinction who himself represents what is left of the tradition of "libertarian socialism...
...J. Hampden Jackson, Marx, Proudhon, and European Socialism...
...Guesde's attitude was sectarian and had condemned the party to irrelevance "in a question concerning militarism, military tribunals, bourgeois legality, patriotism, antiSemitism, etc...
...Precisely for this reason it lacked a mass following in France, whereas it had no difficulty in acquiring such a following in England or America...
...Inversely, Jaures—who now and then fell into the ancient habit of denouncing Jewish rapacity as a particularly disagreeable form of capitalist profit-mongering—took his stand on principle too: the difference being that what mattered to him was justice...
...In the quasi-religious system of early Saint-Simonism, the emancipation of the Jews figured—along with the liberation of women and of the proletariat—among the preconditions of human emancipation in general...
...He even thought some Jewish millionaire (it was the age of the Rothschilds) might lend his aid to the project, and at the same time help the socialist cause along by financing Fourier's own communitarian projects: an "experimental phalange" (the name he gave to his proposed collective settlements) in Palestine would soon spread its fame, and that of its spiritual father, all over the globe...
...44 For the French development during the 1930's see Georges Lefranc, Le Mouvement Socialiste sous la Troisieme Republique (Paris: 1963...
...the duty to speak the truth or to respect the rights of others...
...It will then, I hope, have become apparent that the anti-Jewish current in the European labor movement, before and after the 1914-18 war, was rooted in a complex of attitudes going back to the French Revolution and its impact upon traditional society...
...It is arguable, however, that while SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS the situation has thus changed, certain underlying problems have not been touched upon...
...Elsewhere he established the mathematical rule that the valeur totale of men to women was in the proportion of 27 to 8, woman being immoral by nature...
...All this, in our context, is clearly of im portance...
...But it must be borne in mind that every study of ideas—or, if one pre GEORGE LICHTHEIM fers it, of the interaction between ideology and politics—suffers from the same weakness: it can never be more than a pale shadow of the actual historical record...
...It did not necessarily imply bloodshed, but rather the uncompromising assertion of one's will to alter the existing state of affairs...
...New York: Harper, 1962, p. 204...
...This regeneration would have to be social as well as national, for Lazare had no use for the Jewish bourgeoisie...
...The exclusion of some well-known recent writings (e.g...
...that Negroes are inferior to whites, and that in the American Civil War right is on the side of the South...
...They were (according to Leroux) the inventors of the banking system, which they used as a means of revenging themselves upon the Christians, whose ancestors had ill-treated them for so many centuries...
...Not that France was without its share of racists—they were present even on the Left...
...He was not far wrong when he described the split between urban and rural life as a source of social malady, or when he asserted that in a fundamental sense industrial civilization was being created at the expense of the real producers, the peasants and workmen...
...That it had, in this guise, the sanction of Fourier must be counted among the accidental but important circumstances attending the birth of the socialist movement in France...
...26 Malon also had reasons of his own for disliking the Marxists, who were then just beginning to make an impact upon the French labor movement...
...The Guesdist party congress in September of that year sought a compromise by passing a unanimous resolution against nationalism and anti-Semitism, while refusing to pronounce judgment on the "individual case" of Captain Dreyfus...
...cit., pp...
...Maitron, pp...
...17 Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, pp...
...What he liked about French Catholicism was the legend of Jeanne d'Arc and its mythical folklore...
...It is for myself to decide how far I am prepared to exert myself on behalf of my neighbor, beyond the constraint inherent in the prohibition to set fire to his house...
...IN JUSTICE TO SOREL it should be noted that he did not explicitly urge the adoption of doctrines known to be false...
...Sorel, like many others, misunderstood Lenin's successful coup as a spontaneous uprising which would establish a "government of producers.41 This in itself was simply " orthodox Syndicalism and was then generally accepted in France and Italy by the men and women who were soon to found the Communist parties in these two countries...
...For reasons that will appear later, he can also be classified as belonging to a tradition associated with Jean Jaures, which became dominant in the French socialist movement around the turn of the century in response to the political and intellectual upheaval touched off by the Dreyfus Affair...
...Myths were essential because they helped to shape the future, which was always open and undetermined...
...Whether this is feasible is immaterial: at any rate, it is what the movement was about...
...In April 1911 two prominent Syndicalist agitators, Pataud and Janvion, sponsored a mass meeting in Paris which was advertised in advance as "a great anti-Jewish and anti-Masonic" demonstration...
...All their gifts are pestilence...
...A BRIEF LIST of secondary sources may be useful to the reader...
...The same theme is sounded by another Blanquist, Alberi Regnard (1836-1903), a publicist briefly prominent in the 1871 upheaval when he helped to run the Commune's police...
...That this logic did not manifest itself to the participants, but has to be discovered by the historian, does not mean that it was not present from the start...
...But what of the Jewish element in the Russian upheaval, which by all accounts had been considerable...
...What is perhaps more remarkable is the philo-Semitism of the school as such: beginning with its aristocratic founder, whose "testament" concluded on a note of religious exaltation explicitly modeled upon Jewish messianism: The people of God, that people which received revelations before the coming of Christ, that people which is the most universally spread over the surface of the earth, has always perceived that the Christian doctrine founded by the Fathers of the Church was incomplete...
...Instead, what we have is an atomization of society into self-propelled individuals held together by legal or contractual ties...
...If the nationalist anti-Semites of the extreme Right challenged the statement that a Jew could be a French citizen in the full sense of the term, then they would have the bulk of the nation against them: precisely because "the nation" had been created by men who believed that all Frenchmen were equal citizens...
...10 Silberner, The Anti-Semitic Tradition, p. 2. Cf...
...The fact remains that the school made its principal impact upon public opinion at a time when its doe SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS trine was both socialist and tinged with mystical exaltation...
...The difficulty is somewhat eased in the case of Bakunin, although socialists and anarchists alike have been markedly reluctant to dwell on the theme of his anti-Semitism...
...The school was unique in bridging both the religious cleavage and the incipient conflict between liberals and socialists...
...Its journals—notably Le Pere Peinard, Le Libertaire and Les Temps Nouveaux—at first either affected to ignore the Affaire, or else blew the anti-Semitic trumpet...
...See also the same author's discussion of Jewish participation in the Saint-Simonian movement, in op...
...that it will regulate alike the action of the temporal and of the spiritual power...
...The liberal bourgeoisie, of course, did not believe it...
...40 This did not prevent Sorel from hailing the advent of Bolshevism in 1917, for he saw it as a triumph over what he hated most—liberal democracy...
...religion has nothing to do with this act of high justice...
...That French banking was largely in the hands of Protestants (of French, Swiss, or German origin) did not bother these writers...
...or that woman is "a sort of mean term between man and the rest of the animal creation.23 On " balance, Marx's characterization of Proudhon as a confused petit bourgeois seems to err on the side of charity...
...ALPHONSE TOUSSENEL (1803-85), who had joined the Fourierists in 1833 and from 1839 to 1843 helped to edit one of their journals, was hardly the most important member of the school after Fourier's death in 1837...
...cit., pp...
...This may have been among the reasons why some of his former colleagues were glad to be rid of him...
...For different reasons no consideration is given to AngloAmerican developments during or after this period...
...In short, thetruth did not matter...
...The hatred of the Jew, as that of the English, must be an article of our political faith...
...The distinction between "citizen" and "burgher" (which made it possible for French socialists to address each other as citoyen while abusing the bourgeois) did not exist in Germany...
...The idea of the general strike was no one's invention, but something that had grown spontaneously out of the collective imagination of an elite of French workers...
...Paris: 19'55), pp...
...Considerant's rejoinder to the polemical preface to the second edition appeared in his journal, La Democratie pacifique, of January 31, 1847...
...On the other hand, it may also reflect a problem permanent enough to warrant some consideration...
...What made Fourier an antiSemite was that he denied the likelihood of such a change for the better...
...In the context of the debate then raging, this line of reasoning was not discordant with Jaures' frequently expressed admiration for "the Jewish race" (a term then in general use), and especially for such of its representatives as Maimonides, Spinoza, and Marx...
...Toward the end of the century, these resentments found expression in more or less rational doctrines, which have been described here in outline...
...17 THE THIRD MEMBER Of Our trinity, P.-J...
...XXIV (1952-53) . Sozialisten zur Judenfrage...
...Syndicalism had emerged from a fusion of the Proudhonist tradition with the reviving French workers' movement of the 1880's...
...Leroux's editorship of the Revue encyclopedique from 1831 to 1835 forms an interesting chapter in the history of French literary criticism, but the subject cannot be pursued here...
...Pierre Haubtmann (Paris: 1960-61), II, 337-38...
...It is the evil principle, Satan, Ahriman incarnated in the race of Shem, which has already been twice exterminated by the Greeks and by the Romans, the first time at Tyre, the second time at Carthage...
...Democratic radicalism, of the variety represented by Georges Clemenceau, was opposed to racism, though not immune to propaganda directed against high finance...
...The case of Pierre Leroux (1797-1871) is rather more complex...
...What was blameworthy was not the Jewish people (Leroux was no racialist), but its spirit, "a spirit of greed and cupidity...
...What needs to be retained is that, in the eyes of the Saint-Simonians, the historic role of the Jewish people was not yet exhausted...
...For that matter, Germany is still a country where the basic distinction between "people" and "nation" is not understood...
...34 For this subject see among others Edouard Dolleans, Histoire du mouvement ouvrier 1871-1936 (Paris: 1946), especially pp...
...15 Marx, needless to say, treated the issue as secondary: it was, he thought, part of a subordinate quarrel between the financial plutocracy and the industrial bourgeoisie...
...As a representative of the solid provincial middle class (and one who had been personally ruined by the Revolution), he detested the liberal bourgeoisie which had done well out of the upheaval...
...The Jews, he says, are "the kings of the epoch...
...No wonder Lafargue thought his colleagues had taken leave of their senses...
...A community that was no more than a collection of private individuals was something they did not care for...
...He was a traditional conservative, and at bottom a paternalist in the fashion common among upholders of the Monarchy and the Church since the early 19th century...
...The Jews, he thought, were hopelessly corrupt...
...Berlin: Colloquium Verlag, 1962...
...Toussenel condemned them for personifying the element of finance capital which, like other Frenchmen of his age, he identified with capitalism in general...
...What it did was to remove caste barriers: thereby incidentally sharpening economic conflicts, since "free enterprise" meant free competition in the market place...
...An audience of some 2,000 people—including numerous Camelots du Roi, i.e., followers of Maurras and the Action francaise—heard anti-Semitic tirades which reminded a Russian visitor who was present of the pogromists in his native county...
...Maitron, op...
...But this was a minority viewpoint...
...Fourier did reproduce a few standard conservative arguments, but he added others of his own invention...
...Some of its founders even terminated their career as pioneers of industrialism...
...It does not account for his detestation of the few Jews he 316 met (and the many whom he never encountered), but then Fourier had numerous private crotchets which rendered him an oddity even in the eyes of his followers...
...Tridon, who came later, had already soaked up the new racialism...
...are distinguished only by a record of crime and brutality which at every page of their loathsome annals makes you sick...
...If Islam, why not Juda GEORGE LICHTHEIM ism...
...The grant of equal rights to Jews—or other religious nonconformists, or atheists for that matter—followed as a direct consequence of this kind of reasoning.2 Now the point here is that the same attitude underlay the elimination of traditional social privileges...
...This universal domination, of which so many conquerors have dreamed, the Jews have in their hands.14 The Saint " Simonians had praised the Jews for being in the van of progress...
...This is the root core of anticapitalism in a writer like Charles Fourier (1772-1837...
...Their veritable legacy is to be found in the writings of Antonio Gramsci, who helped to organize the works council movement in Northern Italy in 1919-20, before he was deflected into the leadership of the newly-founded Italian Communist party...
...12 if...
...That it turned out to be impractical is neither here nor there...
...This is by far the most illuminating treatment of the subject known to this writer...
...It is true that he might have cited the Church Fathers in support of this thesis...
...In our context it is noteworthy that Malon thought well of Regnard's Aryens et Semites, that "scholarly and superb study" which breathed a spirit of genuine "Aryanism...
...If political life was regulated by myths (a notion for which Sorel found support in the writings of Gustave Le Bon), the next step was to inquire whether myths might or might not be manipulated...
...8 Talmon, op...
...But at least they involved real issues, were conducted in public, and were decided in a democratic manner: by counting heads at delegates' conferences attended by genuine representatives of an authentic labor movement, not by secret conclaves of self-appointed liberators of mankind...
...30 IF ONE DISREGARDS internal splits, and tac tical changes—not to mention the confusion caused by the gradual collapse of the official case against the accused—it is evident enough in retrospect that the A faire made a deeper impact upon the intelligentsia than upon the working class...
...See also the fourth edition of Sorel's Refiexions sur la violence (Paris: 1919), p. 450, where he dwells upon this theme...
...That problem at least the French had solved —thanks to the Revolution 32 IV I I T CANNOT BE THE PURPOSE of this essay to go into detail about socialist attitudes on the Jewish problem before and after 1914, but something must be said about that strain in the ttradition which ultimately contributed to the fascist movement: the school of thought associated with the name of Georges Sorel...
...Delivered at the Hebrew University on January 4, 1953...
...During his lifetime he observed a certain degree of circumspection, but his sentiments on the subject were never in doubt, and he left a rich legacy which gave rise to a fresh crop of hate literature...
...The instructive thing about Sorel is that while in his early writings he still took the classical rationalist line (the truth shall make you free), he later became the prisoner of his own irrationalism: if the crowd could be moved by myths (whether religious or political), then it was the responsibility of the leader so to act as to bring the goal nearer, even if he himself had seen through the mythical character of his own slogans...
...Nor were they to blame because, in a predominantly Catholic and agrarian society such as 19th-century France, they rivalled the (far more influential) Protestant minority in spearheading a new type of economic development...
...Liberal individualism was indeed not specifically Jewish, but it could be represented as being in some way particularly favorable to the Jews, especially in a country like France where the Reformation had failed and where the prevalent mores were still more or less medieval...
...24 Archives Bakounine (Leiden: 1963), Vol...
...It did not prevent him, however, from prefacing a collection of writings in 1905 with an introduction in which Jaures was accused of having betrayed the Syndicalist utopia for the sake of his friendship with what Sorel, in a typically disagreeable phrase, called the "Dreyfusards de la Bourse...
...With the help of some Jewish millionaire (who might also incidentally do something for the socialist cause by financing a Fourierist phalanstery, or communal settlement, in Palestine), the kingdom of "Judea or Lebanon" could be re-established and turned over to the Jews, currently exposed to persecution in Germany, Poland, and other parts of Europe...
...It is true that Proudhon was in the habit of fulminating in similar fashion against other opponents, and against entire peoples as well...
...36 The author concludes that, taking Sorel's work as a whole, "anti-Semitism remains a private, minor motif, existing in large measure apart from the foundations of his philosophy or sociology.37 This is hard " ly borne out by the same writer's citations from Sorel's polemical tracts during and after the Dreyfus upheaval, from which it emerges quite plainly that his feelings about Jewish emancipation were, to put it mildly, very mixed even at a time when he still considered himself a democrat and had not yet formed a tactical alliance with Charles Maurras and the Action Iran caise...
...It was in his posthumously published writings •that he really let himself go: The Jew is by temperament an anti-producer, neither a farmer, nor an industrialist, nor even a true merchant...
...In either case, the traditional image of the Jew as exploiter had been dented, although the more consistent antiSemites had an answer to that: the Jews were a menace whatever their social origin or political creed...
...In its origins this sentiment was quite natural...
...Claude Willard, Les Guesdistes: Le mouvement socialiste en France (1893-1905...
...It looked very different to the Catholic royalist, and bourgeois (or antibourgeois) novelist Honore de Balzac in the following generation...
...pursue finally the abolition of this cult...
...And yet, he had his share in making a certain form of antiSemitism respectable...
...SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS cited by Spitzer, op...
...Philo-Semitism could never be popular, though in time it won converts among the educated...
...Karl Marx and the Jews," Jewish Social Studies, Vol...
...35 Jaures had in " 1904 founded the Socialist daily l'Humanite with the help of Jewish sympathizers (including the well-known sociologists LevyBruhl and Marcel Mauss) who had been impressed by his courageous, unpopular stand during the Dreyfus upheaval...
...The Central and East European catastrophe of 1933-1945 forms the unspoken background of this study...
...In short, they were a menace and a factor of disintegration...
...Lenin, Materialism and Empiriocriticism, in Collected Works, XIV, 292...
...And by a further stroke of bad luck, the problem has somehow become entangled with the issue of Jewish emancipation...
...THE FOLLOWING REMARKS have been occasioned by a recent revival of interest in the topic of socialist antiSemitism...
...What I do about them is "my own affair," and in no way dependent on communal standards or shared values...
...two, that it was dangerous but permissible in the interest of leading the movement in a direction perceived by the elite (or the leader), though not by the masses...
...une sorte de moyen terme entre lui et le reste du regne animal...
...That role, by general consent, devolved upon Victor Considerant who was no anti-Semite...
...It may well be that the "Jewish problem" as such is inherently insoluble, at any rate within a culture that is still nominally Christian...
...It can also be argued that Sorel was guided by a sound instinct when he asserted that a socialist morality must be "an ethic of producers," in the sense of being a morality appropriate to cooperative enterprises carried on by autonomous groups of people who run their own affairs...
...Rapports personnelsavec Marx," in Oeuvres, lII, 208-09...
...Sorel, "Urbain Gohier," Independance, (January 1, 1912), p. 320...
...See Bakunin, "Lettres a un Francais" [1870], in Oeuvres, IV, 69...
...The Jews were of course ruining France—that went without saying...
...Georges Gurvitch, in his otherwise very scholarly and balanced Proudhon...
...Yet any glance at a traditional culture shows that such a condition is most unusual...
...Anti-Jewish Trends in French Revolutionary Syndicalism," Jewish Social Studies, Vol...
...A tactful concession to the spirit of the post-Stalin era...
...249 $. and passim...
...This rather obscure chapter of European history has been investigated by distinguished historians such as Leon Poliakov, and especially by Edmund Silberner whose studies are extensively cited in the following pages...
...Blanqui, a militant atheist, had always seen Catholicism as a much greater problem than Judaism...
...The injection of an antiSemitic note into this program had nothing to do with it, but was an outcrop of Sorel's personal adherence to the more reactionary aspects of the Proudhonist tradition...
...It was on this basis that Sorel and Maurrasthe former anarchist and the consistent monarchist—were able, on the eve of 1914, to enter into a spiritual alliance against liberalism, democracy, and the Jews...
...La Question Juive," Le Socialiste, June 26, 1892...
...it therefore permits any way of life not visibly harmful to others...
...If he called them "the leprosy and the ruin of the body politic," and condemned the decision to grant them French citizenship, 10 he was giving expression to resentments which could be translated into either reactionary or radicalpopulist terms, depending on circumstances and on the orientation of the individuals concerned...
...XV, No...
...Solomon F. Bloom, The World of Nations: A Study of the National Implications in the Work of Karl Marx...
...That capitalism and individualism were both immoral—or rather, that capitalism was immoral insofar as it implied the new individualist ethic— was something a great many Frenchmen in the 19th century were very willing to believe...
...They are the horror of the nations because of their pitiless cupidity, as they had once been because of their enmity and war to the death against the human race...
...It is notorious that Enfantin and Barrault in the 1830's led an expedition to the Orient, and that its eventual outcome was not the discovery of the femme-Messie, but the construction of the Suez Canal...
...In itself this is understandable and no discredit to the workers, many of whom barely grasped what was at stake, while others probably thought that it was something for the bourgeois to fight out among themselves...
...Unluckily, it is this very dissociation which is at the root of a great deal of the unease caused by the apparent lack of any kind of generally acceptable social morality...
...The most recent and most distinguished of these studies—here accorded special mention because it falls outside the theme of the present essay—is Professor Georges Friedmann's work published in France in 1966 under the challenging title Fin du peuple juif...
...see also the same author's "Pierre Leroux's Ideas on the Jewish People," Jewish Social Studies VIII (1946), IX (1947), XII (1950...
...This indeed became an insoluble problem for those Blanquists who were racists...
...Tolerate the aged who no longer give birth to offspring...
...To grasp what is at stake it is necessary to stand back a little from the surface configuration of modern society and ask oneself what exactly it is that its citizens take for granted...
...The experience of the 1940's showed what could happen if these restraints went by the board: notably in Central and Eastern Europe, where the position of the Jews had always been weaker than in the more civilized West...
...In contrast to its sectarian predecessors of the 1860's, it did not worship blindly at the shrine of some doctrinaire: a change which led Marx to observe in 1880 that France was at last beginning to get a real labor movement...
...The Jews (he now said) should be helped to escape from their persecutors in Europe by returning to Palestine "and once more become a recognized nation, with their own king, their own flag, their own consuls, and their own money...
...Neither did those East European Jewish Socialists who pioneered the Palestinian land settlements after 1906...
...For Marx there exists a mass of secondary literature (much of it in German and untranslated), and the same applies to Moses Hess and Ferdinand Lassalle...
...11 T T HE ANTI-JEWISH element in the French socialist movement during the three decades following Fourier and Saint-Simon—from the 1840's to the Paris Commune of 1871— is primarily associated with three names: Alphonse Toussenel (1803-85), Pierre Leroux (1797-1871), and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-65) . Proudhon's relations with Bakunin (1814-76) and with Marx (181883) introduce a theme which forms a separate subject...
...It also happened to suit the emerging bourgeoisie, of which the Jewish community was an important component...
...the latter he disliked GEORGE LICHTHEIM chiefly because it had given rise to the Christian religion...
...It was part of the achievement of liberalism that it had for so long protected an unpopular minority from the accumulated resentments surrounding it...
...On both counts liberalism represented a radical break with the past of a traditional (and overwhelmingly agrarian) order...
...It is quite wrong to suppose that all "progressives" were united on this issue, with only the "reactionaries" hostile to the granting of equal rights to the Jews...
...38 This was also the view of Maurras, a conservative Royalist for whom Catholicism was a necessary fiction: not literally true, but vital for the continued existence of Latin civilization and therefore to be defended against Jews, Protestants, and foreigners...
...It is no coincidence that these years witnessed a remarkable outburst of anti-Semitism in France, some of which spilled over into the socialist literature of the period...
...GEORGE LICHTHEIM Sorel also discovered, as part of this conversion to irrationalism, that the proletariat needed a "myth...
...I part 2, pp...
...The imagination of the poets has placed the golden age at the cradle of the human race, among the ignorance and brutality of early times...
...This kind of universalism was lacking in Germany, where there was not even a suitable concept to designate a "citizen...
...23 "L'etre complet . . . c'est le male...
...Returning to France in 1859 he started a new career—as a student of Judaism and of the Hebrew language, publishing translations of and commentaries on Job (1866) and Isaiah (1869...
...For the essence of Rousseau's teaching lay in a conception of morality as something both public and private, anchored in a particular way of life: one in which people cooperated instead of competing with each other...
...It is of course extremely important to know what was actually being said at the time by writers either friendly or hostile to Jewish emancipation, and in the case of Fourier there is perhaps some excuse for treating his anti-Jewish outbursts as personal deviations from the "progressive" norm...
...All these mountebanks are Jews: Marx, Hess, Borkheim, Liebknecht [sic!], Jacoby, Weiss, Utin, and many others, they are all Jews...
...The French bourgeoisie read Voltaire, but the masses instinctively felt with Rousseau...
...One must send this race back to Asia or exterminate it...
...It is one aspect of what liberals call "civilization" and what socialists since Marx have called "bourgeois society...
...27 This was rather more than Marx's " French followers were prepared to swallow, for although both Guesde and Lafargue permitted themselves occasional diatribes against Jewish financiers, they represented the nascent Marxist orthodoxy which refused to have truck with racism...
...In the France of the 1880's—a country barely recovered from the disastrous war with Germany in 1870-71—being a Marxist was no passport 324 to popularity even among socialists...
...If he was better educated than Proudhon, he still shared his predecessor's desire to find a formula which would do justice to France's national (and religious) heritage, while accommodating the new working-class movement...
...The Affaire also disclosed something else: that in an emergency most Frenchmen would stand together on the principles proclaimed in 1789 and 1793...
...7 (August 1963...
...Du Molochisme juif (Paris: 1884) is full of rant about the Semites as the "evil genius of the world...
...The Jewish issue struck him as farcical...
...In reading Proudhon one must always bear in mind that, for all his fiery atheism, he was basically the product of a Catholic peasant culture...
...Setting aside Fourier's personal eccentricities, it amounted to saying that the Jews were among the chief beneficiaries of a way of life which was subversive of communitarian values...
...In later years he became reconciled to democracy...
...286 if., on the internal crisis of the Socialist party which in the end led to the departure of the so-called neo-Socialists in 1933...
...Conceivably, some of them are of a kind that defies anything in the nature of a solution...
...3 Silberner, loc...
...After 1917 Leon Blum and others became active in pro-Palestine committees, though they dissented from the Zionist position that Palestine could offer a solution to the Jewish problem...
...The culprits were, however, quite unrepentant...
...The Guesdist election manifesto of April 1898 (when the Aflaire was nearing its first great climax) made considerable play with the theme that the ruling classes were undermining democratic legality...
...This is the Proudhon of Cesarisme et Christianisme, published posthumously in 1883, eighteen years after his death in 1865...
...Proudhon...
...It is not irrelevant that Renan, who expressed such views in the 1860's, was a doctrinaire rationalist and politically a moderate liberal...
...II faut accomplir le voeu de Voltaire, la renvoyer a Jerusalem...
...This, as it happened, was the real faith of the Syndicalist movement before 1914...
...The Refiexions—originally published in 1907— made Sorel famous...
...Choice here is "free," not in some metaphysical sense, but in the concrete sense that it is a matter of private judgment...
...58 ff...
...7 Eugene Rodrigues, in La religion saint-simonienne (2d ed., Brussels: 1831...
...Edmund Silberner, "The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism...
...Jerusalem: 1953...
...When Sorel, at the age of 45, took up the study of this movement, he did so in the spirit of a learned bystander—a "metaphysician of socialism," as Jaures called him...
...III T T HE THREE DECADES following the death of Proudhon in 1865 witnessed a major reorientation within the French workers' movement, which in the long run also affected its attitude to the Jewish problem...
...Professor Friedmann's work is, however, marginal to the theme of the present essay which focuses upon earlier phases of the complex process whereby European socialism in general, and French socialism in particular, shed its antiSemitic aspects...
...Texte inedit et integral, ed...
...Chirac, in Revue socialiste, IV [1886], 975...
...414-15...
...Paris: Societe universitaire d'editions, 1955...
...His original attitude to the Dreyfus Affair was cast in a rigidly doctrinaire mold: it was a subordinate quarrel between two bourgeois clans in which the proletariat had no interest...
...On Marx's attitude to Jewish emancipation see Silberner, "Was Marx an anti-Semite...
...81-82...
...In 1881 the Executive Committee of the Narodnaya Volya still took its line from Bakunin's spiritual heirs, though even then some of its members objected...
...33 if...
...3o Claude Willard, Les Guesdistes (Paris: 1965), pp...
...So far as the Jews belonged to any stratum of French society, it was primarily the middle or lower-middle class...
...Put briefly, it amounted to saying that man is "by nature" a social being and that in consequence an ethically meaningful existence can only be lived in a certain kind of community: one in which men cooperate rather than compete...
...The idea had been in the air since Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798-99, when the future Emperor affected an interest in, of all things, the Moslem religion...
...All this, from the liberal viewpoint, was natural and desirable—so much so that, for quite a long time, the more doctrinaire liberals could see in the arguments of their critics only a species of perversity...
...It is the more significant that his chapter on the crisis of the 1890's ("Les Anarchistes et l'Affaire Dreyfus") makes no attempt to gloss over the embarrassing aspects of the subject...
...And even then the execution of the new policies ran into considerable opposition among leading Fascists and was passively sabotaged by the Italian bureaucracy during the war years...
...Here the October Revolution is welcomed for having revealed to the proletariat that its mission cannot be accomplished otherwise than by doing away with "formal democracy" and establishing a gouvernement de producteurs...
...Unfortunately, Bergson was a Jew, but Sorel was able to accommodate this exception to the general rule, as were SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS other anti-Semites of the philosophical kind, e.g., the Jewish writer Bernard Lazare (1865-1903), who before his conversion to Zionism proposed a metaphysical distinction between "Jews" (bad) and "Israelites" (good) . 43 This was just the kind of nonsense that appealed to Sorel...
...Since the dispute turned largely upon the newly prominent role of industrialists and financiers, it was inevitable that socialist dislike of bourgeois liberalism should fasten upon the Jews as the real or putative beneficiaries of a political upheaval which had unshackled the market economy...
...19 As we shall see later on, utterances of this kind formed a link between the Proudhonist tradition and that founded by Bakunin...
...Fourier's project of 1835-36 was more practical: Palestine, with its neighboring regions—Damascus, Palmyra, etc.—will become a valuablecountry when the deserts between Lebanon andSinai have been irrigated and re-forested by industrial armies, and when the Jordan and the Dead Sea have obtained a navigable access tothe Red Sea, the gulf of Etzion-Geber, or Solomon's port of Ophir...
...Such ironic transformations were the stuff of history in the age of Romanticism...
...But it did not make him more tolerant of the liberals, or of his rivals, the Saint-Simonians, who combined socialism with philo-Semitism...
...cited by Silberner, "The AntiSemitic Tradition," p. 5. Duchene was perhaps not in every respect representative of the Proudhonist movement, but his pamphlet followed a line of reasoning suggested by Proudhon in his writings of the 1850's, notably his Philosophie du progres (1853) and his Manuel du Speculateur a la Bourse (1857...
...14 Silberner, The Anti-Semitic Tradition, p. 2, citing Toussenel, op...
...The later career of Mussolini—and the Spanish Falangists who helped to precipitate the civil war in 1936—is an object lesson in what happens to a movement that turns itself over to thinkers of this type...
...The awkwardness of this discovery was tempered for a while by the hope that bourgeois society would somehow transform itself peacefully into something else, or that the old agrarian and communitarian values could still be preserved...
...For the rest, he rejected anti-Semitism insofar as it was a racial doctrine: the Semites (he observed in a polemic with Ernest Renan) were by no means inferior to other races...
...cit., p. 2. See also the same author's "Charles Fourier on the Jewish Question," Jewish Social Studies, VIII (1946), 245-266...
...It was particularly nox ious because of the social evils consequent upon the abandonment of Christian religious principles...
...What he thought of the Jews in general may be inferred from an unpublished reference to them as "the type, the ideal and the incarnation of swindling, usury and rapacity...
...To say that Sorel's writings around 1914 lent support to this theme is merely to state the obvious...
...In the passage already cited (dating from the end of 1871 or the beginning of 1872) in which it is asserted that Marx and the Rothschilds are linked by secret sympathies, Bakunin continues: This may seem strange...
...The Saint-Simonians expected a revelation from the East, to be mediated by a Jewish woman-Messiah...
...To him these men were "initiators of the new feudalism," and he did not think any the better of them because some (though by no means the most important) were Jews...
...It is true that this particular line of conduct eventually went out of fashion among the Russian Populists, but that was after Marxism had won a foothold among them...
...Little, Brown, 1964...
...The fact remains that their individualism enabled them to get to the top faster than other groups of society...
...in any event, not over an entire range of activities in which certainty had previously been possible because ethical rules applied both to individual and to communal existence...
...The issue between these two factions had nothing to do with Dreyfus...
...Expressed at its simplest, this was the root of the socialist case against liberal individualism during the opening decades of the 19th century...
...Since 1945 a reaction has set in—so much so that it has become difficult to understand the intellectual climate of an age in which anti-Semitism constituted an actual menace to democracy, and even extended into the Socialist movement of the most highly civilized and sophisticated country of Western Europe...
...The monarchist Right was hostile for nationalist reasons, and because the Jews were associated with the Republic...
...To this question there were two possible answers: one, that it was possible but undesirable, because truth and decency forbade it (the traditional democratic position...
...But this failure is attributed to their generic incapacity for sound morality and political common sense: had they been more sensible, they would have followed Jesus and thus promoted the peaceful reformation of their own community and of the Roman Empire, instead of clinging to their supposed uniqueness (Ibid., p. 122...
...Ethics has to do with the SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS way in which individuals make use of this freedom...
...He wanted to go forward, not backward...
...Publication des manuscrits de Charles Fourier (Paris: 1851-58), III, 35...
...Oh, the communism of Marx wants a mightycentralization by the State, and where this exists there must nowadays inevitably be a centralState bank, and where such a bank exists, the parasitical Jewish nation, which speculates onthe labor of the people, will always find ameans to sustain itself...
...The anticapitalist and the antiJewish theme were intertwined, and it took considerable time and trouble before they could be disentangled...
...it is before us...
...In medieval society, people knew for certain how X or Y ought to behave, because it was known what sort of position—that of nobleman, clergyman, peasant, etc.—they occupied...
...When Drumont on one occasion referred to it in print, Jaures (in the Petite Republique of December 13, 1898) retorted that Drumont had misunderstood Marx, although he added that the Jews, "accustomed SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS by centuries of persecution to practice solidarity," had indeed developed an excessive fondness for the precious metals and for capital accumulation in general...
...In the meantime, writers like Malon did what they could to keep it alive...
...cit., pp...
...34 WHEN THEREFORE GEORGES SOREL—after a brief career as an expositor of Marx's doctrine between 1893 and 1898—came forward around 1900 as an exponent of Syndicalism, he was inventing nothing new, but rather latching on to a movement founded years before by men who, unlike himself, were genuine representatives of the working class...
...Readers steeped in this literature will be aware of the problem of rendering the topic comprehensible to those not familiar with the Central European background...
...Sa vie, son oeuvre (Paris: 1965), cites a few polemical shafts directed against Marx by Proudhon in his marginalia to Marx's book, but is silent on the topic of Proudhon's maniacal Jew-hatred...
...The more offensive of them will be discussed in due course, but first some consideration must be given to an issue commonly neglected in writings on the subject: namely the logical status of moral principles in a debate supposedly concerned with political and economic factors.' (See Notes, pp...
...What you have is simply a case of honest people chasing rascals, usurers, exploiters of labor...
...see Willard, op...
...Paris: Editions Sociales, 1965...
...cutting across all the differences in political opinion"—adding for good measure that Marx and the Rothschilds were sure to hold each other in high esteem...
...We all know what became of those who swallowed this line...
...122-24...
...It is hardly surprising that those Socialists who dissented from this attitude were themselves intellectuals, or that Jaures acquired a larger following among school teachers and students than among manual workers...
...By then, however, a good deal' of damage had been done, as the public reaction to the Dreyfus Affair later in the decade was to show...
...In their case, too, the appeal was to normative principles, not to political considerations...
...But then what of Marx...
...The reason why some of them eventually turned to Fascism cannot be discussed here, and the same applies to the parallel development in Belgium...
...It need hardly be said that this short list is intended merely as a guide to the literature, and that in what follows no attempt has been made to break new ground in any particular area investigated by the specialists...
...Sorel was part of a well-established tradition: particularly well-established in the solid provincial middle class from which he stemmed...
...In the same year Malon's old friend Gustave Rouanet publicly went back on his previous antiJewish utterances...
...He thus shared the Fourierist obsession with the Jews as the incarnation of the spirit of Mammon...
...This is an arrangement which liberals regard as an important achievement of Western society, and even Communists (at any rate in some parts of Eastern Europe) are now beginning to treat as desirable...
...They must have had some reason for echoing their master's sentiments, even if in the course of time they abandoned his more extravagant notions: e.g., that the Hebrews were hopelessly debased as a people, or that they...
...We have become so accustomed to this state of affairs that few people even think it odd, although it is in fact very odd indeed and quite without precedent...
...Since all reasonable people desire peace and freedom, it follows that they will so conduct themselves as not to encroach upon each other...
...But that was in the prosaic 1860's, when the former visionary Enfantin had become a railway director and the economist Michel Chevalier an adviser to Napoleon III...
...it is [to be found] in the perfection of the social order...
...It is not quite clear why Nolte regards this claim as unfounded...
...A prisoner in chains on Devil's Island appealed to the Anarchist temperament which had after all consistently championed the cause of prison inmates...
...The term Buerger had altogether different connotations...
...by Proudhon in his Confessions d'un revolutionnaire (Paris: 1849) where Toussenel gets favorable mention, and by Marx in his Class Struggles in France (1850) where Toussenel is mentioned among the pamphleteers inveighing against the financial oligarchy prominent under the Orleanist regime...
...From 1899 onward most Anarchists (including Pouget) became active in the "revisionist" campaign, although an Anarchist congress in 1900 still heard some warnings against unthinking philo-Semitism: the proper line for the libertarian movement (it was said) lay in ignoring racial and religious considerations altogether...
...the revelation that the Jews—or some Jews—were after all capable of founding a state, and even of defending themselves unaided or practically unaided...
...SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS While all this was going on, a countermovement was slowly taking shape which in the end was destined to prevail...
...Lazare was unusual in that, having become a Jewish nationalist under the impact of the Dreyfus Affair, he attended Zionist congresses and maintained that "there is a Jewish nation" and that it must have its own territory, so as to accomplish its collective regeneration...
...Indeed, Jewish "international finance" was behind the attempts on the Tsar's life...
...Considering the tremendous impact of Saint-Simonian propaganda upon public opinion in the 1830's, it is arguable that he underrates its importance...
...The Jauresists, as descendants of the Jacobin tradition, asserted that no democrat could stand aside on the issue...
...To fight the Semitic spirit and ideas is the aim of the Indo-Aryan race...
...Most of his citations are culled from Malon's essay "La Question juive," Revue socialiste, III (1886) and later articles in the same periodical which was then engaged in a running fight with the Marxists...
...Fourier, La fausse industrie (Paris: 1835-36), I, 224...
...Op...
...New York: Doubleday, 1967...
...In the same passage, "Das Frankreich der Borsenjuden" is translated as "the France of the Bourse jobbers...
...The controversy afforded Leroux an opportunity to emphasize his disagreement with Renan's thesis that the Semites were in every respect inferior to the Indo-Europeans...
...19 Duchene, L'Empire industriel (Paris: 1869), p. 196...
...To that extent the Proudhonist tradition (ultimately an outcrop of the medieval attachment to Natural Law doctrine) provided a foundation for the "revisionists...
...It was this declaration that evoked Lafargue's protest, as well as an outcry among Socialist student GEORGE LICHTHEIM groups favorable to "revision...
...His policy in economics has always been entirely negative, entirely usurious...
...Practically it made no difference to the more vulgar antiSemites, since their objection was to East European Jewish immigrants (mostly proletarians), while Sorel and his circle disliked the Parisian Jewish bourgeoisie: people like Leon Blum or Marcel Proust...
...In the light of such utterances, the notorious appeal of the Narodnaya Volya on September 1, 1881, for a pogrom against the "Jewish Tsar," the Jews, and the nobles, is hardly surprising...
...How they behaved (or were supposed to behave) followed ineluctably from who or what they were...
...The first edition of his pamphlet Les Juifs rois de l'epoque (1845) was favorably reviewed in the Fourierist journals La Phalange and La Democratie pacifique...
...R. F. Byrnes, Anti-Semitism in Modern France (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1950) I, 156-58 and passim...
...It was primarily motivated by what he described as Toussenel's misguided attribution of "inborn and irremediable" faults to particular peoples or races...
...But France could not live without myths—the truth would kill it, for truth was the enemy of life...
...Nolte, op...
...He knows but the rise and fall of prices, the risks of transportation, the incertitudes of crops, the hazards of demand and supply...
...Most of them (though not all) will inevitably re-appear in the Notes...
...Here it may be noted that Proudhon differentiated himself from those writers of his time who believed in the possibility of a change for the better...
...It will then appear that what they take for granted is something very odd indeed: namely, that there ought to be some kind of social morality—whether of a religious or a secular kind—but that it GEORGE LICHTHEIM should not interfere with the personal freedom of the individual...
...By an agreeable paradox, most of them were admirers of Fourier and Proudhon...
...in the end they drew the logical conclusion by quitting a movement which had become, at any rate nominally, Marxist...
...It was this change of atmosphere—an aspect of the democratization of French public life under the Third Republic—which made it possible for democratic Socialism to develop...
...Syndicalism from the start turned upon the idea of autonomous producers running their own affairs without interference from anybody (not even from a revolutionary party...
...Sorel was particularly alarmed by the separation of Church and State in 1905: perhaps the most important consequence of the Radicals' recent triumph...
...And since the Marxist "myth" seemed to have lost its power (this was before the October Revolution which was to turn Sorel into an enthusiastic, if naive and uncomprehending, admirer of Lenin), he was ready to oblige with a confection of his own: the myth of "the general strike...
...Silberner, "Anti-Jewish Trends," p. 196...
...Thus in the summer of 1847 one finds him writing: "Je hais cette nation [juive...
...To say this is not in any way to suggest that the first generation of newly emancipated Jews, or their successors, were responsible for what was in effect a crisis of modern society...
...That stage had been passed, and "Jewish finance" was no longer a topic for writers with any pretension to being taken seriously...
...This, incidentally, was a surgical operation that in the long run facilitated the emergence of a Christian-democratic movement...
...But Voltaire's proposal (like most of his utterances) was no more than a jest, and it proceeded from a spirit of frivolity quite foreign to the mentality of Proudhon...
...He is an intermediary, always fraudulent and parasitic, who operates in trade as in philosophy, by means of falsification, counterfeiting [and] horse-trading...
...Historically, they had always been a nation of traders, even in biblical times, and in the modem age they had become the very incarnation of the commercial spirit...
...If it be asked why France has been singled out, the answer is: because it was the cradle of the socialist movement, German socialism having been founded in the Rhineland around 1840 by Moses Hess and others, a generation after it had come to birth in its French homeland...
...On the contrary, they were inclined to think that it was a perversion that ought to be corrected...
...This may seem a rather bloodless way of summing up a controversy whose frequently appalling violence foreshadowed early the catastrophes with which we have become familiar...
...Sentiments of this kind—along with oc casional echoes of the ancient complaint about "Jewish bankers"—even affected the outlook of the Communist militant, as any one who followed the internal upheaval within the French CP during the 1967 ArabIsraeli war could not help noticing...
...The legal case against Dreyfus began to collapse in August 1898, with the confession and suicide of Colonel Henry, but this did not affect the substance of the dispute between the Guesdists and their Jauresist opponents...
...From 1845 to 1848 he SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS edited the Revue sociale...
...His unpublished notes on the subject include the customary unflattering references to Jewish "swindlers" and "Shylocks," but this was a common habit in his age and did not make him an antiSemite in the doctrinaire sense...
...But Toussenel was not unimportant...
...5 Henri de Saint-Simon, Le nouveau christianisme (1825) ; cf...
...This—be it noted in passing—was the decade during which Marx composed his early political writings, under the impression of what he had seen and heard in Paris and Brussels...
...His followers in the next generation denounced Jewish financiers with the same fervor with which the Saint-Simon ians extolled their civilizing mission: the difference being that anti-Semitism struck a more responsive chord among a people still deeply affected by the medieval tradition which pictured the Jew in the role of usurer...
...Fourier occupies an intermediate position...
...The emancipation of the Jews had occurred on the ruins of a structure which had stood ever since the Papacy and the Frankish monarchy made their pact in the eighth century...
...le youpin Dreyfus est un galonnard, patriote jusqu-au bout des orteils, qui, gratte-papier au ministere de la guerre, maquignonnaitles secrets de polichinelle qu'on gard precieusement dans cette sale boite...
...it also asserted that the working class must defend the Republic, "this instrument of your emancipation...
...This at any rate committed the P.O.F...
...9 To a liberal grandseigneur like Saint-Simon, brought up on Voltairian anticlericalism, this was simply the belated triumph of Reason...
...It is the peculiar distinction, but also the peculiar curse of modern society that these circumstances no longer obtain...
...The confusion was not accidental, although some of the arguments supporting it were...
...But the specific form of his hostility differed from the attitude of the conservatives in that he had no desire to revert to the ancien regime or to medieval authoritarianism...
...312-14...
...27 Malon, in Revue socialiste, XI (1890) , 349...
...It was not their fault that they were among the beneficiaries of an upheaval which inter alia resulted in an enormous enlargement of personal freedom (including the abolition of actual serfdom or slavery...
...THE DISSOCIATION OF PERSONAL FROM communal values is surely a basic feature of the kind of society in which we live...
...The "patriots" had to change their tune when the official case began to disintegrate, but there was always the "class standpoint": the whole Affaire was of no concern to the workers...
...Moreover, it brought out some of their less lovable traits and gave these public sanction...
...22-23...
...15 For the original text see Marx-Engels, Werke (Berlin: 1960), VII, 15...
...New Christianity (London: 1834...
...cit., pp...
...cit., p. 473...
...What matters in our context is the link between Sorel's irration alism and his growing antipathy to the Jews: they would not go for myths (this was be fore he had come across Zionism, which anyhow he did not take seriously), and those Jewish intellectuals who were beginning to influence the French Socialist movement were (with individual exceptions) either Marxists or adherents of traditional Cartesianism...
...In principle his problems do not concern me...
...42 Gaetan Pirou, Georges Sorel (Paris: 1927), p. 50...
...last, the discovery by Frenchmen of the Right and the Left that the longed-for fusion of patriotism with socialism had actually been effected in, of all places, Israel...
...Eastern Europe appears only distantly on the horizon: principally in the person of Bakunin and his progeny, among whom the Narodnaya Volya distinguished itself in 1881 with an appeal for a pogrom against "the Tsar, the nobles, and the Jews," thereby inaugurating a tradition which is not yet exhausted...
...And when from 1905 onward he began to give a nationalist and anti-Semitic coloration to his utterances, he was simply reverting to the shadier aspects of the Proudhonist tradition, though without the excuse available to Proudhon...
...41 Sorel, Materiaux d'une theorie (postscriptum of 1918 to the unpublished Preface of 1914...
...His followers were another matter, notably Gustave Tridon (1841-71) whose pamphlet Du Molochisme Juif (published posthumously in 1884, but for the most part written while he was serving a prison sentence in 186668) rang the changes on all the specifically anti-Jewish themes of the age: not excluding the menace which the Semites presented to the "Indo-Aryan race...
...XVI (April 1954) . "Ferdinand Lassalle: From Maccabeism to Jewish Anti-Semitism," Hebrew Union College Annual, Vol...
...A one-time Saint-Simonian, he retained the friendship of Jewish members of the sect who in his last years helped him when he was in the direst straits...
...For details see Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, pp...
...Proudhon, II, 337-38...
...In Jesus et les origines du christianisme (published posthumously in 1896) the Jews are blamed for having rejected the religious reformation associated with Jesus (in whose divine mission Proudhon, being an atheist, did not believe...
...They were —like the Poles, Greeks, Armenians, and other "vagabonds"—incapable of founding a state...
...Violence was something from which no really serious political movement would shrink...
...They range from the rationalism of Jules Lechevalier ("What is the mission of Saint-Simonism...
...Similar considerations apply to Proudhon and his spiritual progeny in France and Belgium, down to and including Georges Sorel...
...Bakunin never tired in his denunciation of Hess, Marx, and other "Jewish leaders" of the German labor movement...
...Moreover, the philo-Semitic current which briefly prevailed after 1789, and then surfaced once more among the Saint-Simonian part of the early socialist movement, was itself a factor in provoking the hostility of rival groups, since it appeared to go with a marked indifference to certain traditional values...
...The issue was complicated by the conflict between the Guesdist group and the followers of Jaures, who stood further to the Right and on occasion cooperated with the bourgeois Radicals led by Clemenceau...
...Even if Fourier was in some respects a crank, most of his followers were not...
...The crisis having passed, there is a natural temptation to conclude that the whole issue is dead...
...How close Bakunin was to him in this respect may be inferred from those passages in which the founder of Russian anarchism described the Jews as "an exploiting sect, a bloodsucking people, a unique devouring parasite, tightly and intimately organized...
...Carnets, II, 150...
...Originally a SaintSimonian who had quarreled with Enfantin and left the sect, he turned the liberal journal Le Globe, around 1830, into a socialist propaganda organ...
...Jean Maitron, Histoire du Mouvement Anarchiste en France (1880-1914...
...Marx cites the correct title of Toussenel's pamphlet, whereas the two-volume English-language selection published in Moscow in 1958 (Marx-Engels Selected Works, I, 143) gives the title as "Usurers Kings of the Epoch...
...When the war of 1914-18 inaugurated the crisis of liberal civilization, the Jews were among the first and worst sufferers...
...During the 1840's he was active—in collaboration with the novelist and feminist George Sand whose acquaintance he had made through SainteBeuve— in propagating a highly personal doctrine of reformist and pacifist socialism...
...Anyone with eyes in his head could see that the new doctrines of economic liberalism favored the rich rather than the poor...
...Our fathers have not seen it, our children will arrive there one day...
...Notwithstanding all these alarming circumstances, Leroux did not despair altogether: as a good Christian he hoped for the conversion of the Jews, just as he awaited the coming of a Christian socialism...
...Frank E. Manuel, The Prophets of Paris...
...In the current literary fashion one might speculate over the personal motivations which impelled a respectable, middle-aged, middle-class, retired engineer—with the Legion d'honneur in his buttonhole, money in the public funds, and an ex-servant girl to look after him (his relatives saw to it that he did not marry her, though she served him faithfully until her death)—to take up first Syndicalism, then nationalism, and finally anti-Semitism...
...42 The link between Sorel's irrationalism and his anti-Semitism was furnished by his dislike of positive science: a typical fin-de siècle attitude, much in vogue among Parisian intellectuals after 1900 as a result of Berg son's teachings...
...The assumptions underlying this state of affairs have entered the common language, so that it is no longer regarded as reasonable to inquire whether what people "ought" to do as individuals may not be prescribed for them by what they are in fact doing as members of a particular community...
...But the Preface of 1905 already prefigured the subsequent drift of his thought in a direction later exploited by Mussolini's followers (though not by the German "National Socialists," for whom Sorel was not racialist enough...
...I 12 A. Toussenel, Les Juifs, rois de 1'epoque: histoire de la feodalite financiere (Paris: 1845, 1847...
...18 Carnets de P.-J...
...Let intellectuals like Jaures—with GEORGE LICHTHEIM his following of university professors, school teachers, and students—fight for "abstract justice": the workers had more important matters to think about...
...Others have concerned themselves primarily with the religious sources of anti-Semitism and the Jewish reaction thereto...
...Sorel was never able to specify a criterion that would GEORGE LICHTHEIM have enabled his followers to make a sensible discrimination between necessary and unnecessary violence, or between the rational application of force and the self-destructive glorification of bloodshed...
...What was at stake was justice (according to Jaures), or bourgeois legality (according to Guesde...
...The crisis thus disclosed what some contemporary writers had already begun to sense: that orthodox Marxism (as then understood) had nothing to say about ethics: it was a theory of the revolution, but not a philosophy of life...
...This is GEORGE LICHTHEIM one of the links between the older religious form of Jew-hatred and the new racialism which replaced it from the 1850's onward...
...4o Ibid., p. 71...
...In a traditional society—and the early French socialists had come out of a traditional society which was being disrupted by the market economy—it would have been regarded as madness...
...li This is not to say that the subject was of overwhelming importance to Fourier: he had a great many other and more pressing things on his mind...
...In public Proudhon contented himself with the stock arguments already put into circulation by Toussenel and others...
...124-26...
...It was fought out over the question whether the moral health of the Republic was a matter of concern to the labor movement...
...Boston: Atlantic...
...To the extent that this was the case around 1900, the Jewish issue was of no concern to the labor movement...
...31 See Jean Maitron, Histoire du mouvement anarchiste en France (1880-1914), 2nd ed...
...It illuminated a spiritual underworld which was to erupt in the following generation among Proudhon's and Bakunin's followers: paradoxically with the result that the French socialist and syndicalist movement, having at long last glimpsed Caliban in the mirror, made a successful effort to get rid of him...
...The fate - ful association of Jews with banking—a her GEORGE LICHTHEIM itage from an earlier epoch—encouraged a socialist variant of a litany doubly effective in a predominantly Catholic country...
...it is rather the iron age which should be relegated to those days...
...One of Proudhon's pet hates under the regime of Napoleon III (1852-70) was what he called the Empire industriel: in other words, the association of the Imperial regime with the growth of industrial capitalism...
...What he really represented was a fusion of backwoods barbarism with the mental chaos typical of the autodidact...
...5 This stirring theme was echoed countless times in the Saint-Simonian literature of the late 1820's and early 1830's (most of it produced by non-Jews...
...At one point Enfantin and Barrault even prophesied a coming reconciliation of the Orient and the Occident, to be mediated by a female Messiah of Jewish origin.8 The contrast with Fourier's violent antiSemitism is startling...
...44 if...
...By the same token they were not dis SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS posed to think highly of people for whom private property and free enterprise established the external framework of moral discourse...
...The golden age of mankind is not behind us...
...32-34...
...A person's moral obligation can no longer be defined in terms of his or her social role...
...Guesde indeed went so far as to tell them that the trade name of the firm exploiting them was "not Moses and Co., but Christ and Co...
...All his enemies belonged to the accursed race...
...A similar consideration applies to the Jacobinism of Jaures and Clemenceau, though in their case it was concern for the spiritual health of the Republic that drove them into battle...
...Insofar as they had a theory of bourgeois society, it was that of Marx—as they were quite willing to recognize...
...Its official writings—notably the essay collection La religion saint-simonienne —present variations on this topic...
...Talk about the Rothschilds still went down well with petit-bourgeois audiences, especially in the provinces, for Jewish financiers had taken their share of speculative gains, from the first railway boom of the 1840's to the Panama scandal of the 1880's...
...See Bazard's formulation of the official Doctrine saint-simonienne (1829), reprinted in Saint-Simon, Oeuvres (Paris: 1865-78), XLII, 145...
...This is usually overlooked by writers who have become enthralled with the theme of Marx's juvenilia, including his essay on the Jewish question: quite forgetting that his contemporaries saw him as a German Jew and were not unaware that his German and Austrian followers included a sizable number of Jewish intellectuals...
...But if they counterposed working-class autonomy to bourgeois democracy, and the unions (syndicats) to the political party, they did not for this reason revive that part of Proudhon's legacy which was pre-Marxist and indeed pre-industrial...
...This was the rock against which German liberalism beat in vain...
...and that then all the human race will have but one religion and one organization...
...When we have answered this question, we shall, I think, also have cast some light on a problem in modern society for which the Jews are in no way responsible, but which their collective existence has somehow thrown into sharper relief...
...Their moral duties did not have to be discussed in abstraction from their social roles...
...cit., pp...
...The rational core of this idea later entered into the doctrines of Italian Communism...
...James Joll, The Anarchists...
...But first a word about anarchosyndicalism, and here it is important to distinguish what this concept signified to its originators GEORGE LICHTHEIM from the meaning it later assumed for literary bystanders like Sorel...
...The Jew is the enemy of the human race...
...8 if...
...What lies beyond these arrangements is an area of free choice, where each individual is on his own...
...To Sorel it was a heroic prefiguration of the revolutionary dawn: not to be taken literally, but to be treated as an imaginative metaphor, prophetic of a coming social transformation...
...He was elected to the National Assembly after the Revolution of 1848, and went into exile when Louis Napoleon established his dictatorship in 1851...
...Proudhon could also cite the authority of Voltaire for the notion that the Jews should be sent back to Palestine...
...It was here that nationalist writers and pupils of Sorel elaborated the key elements of what in later years became the French, Italian, Spanish, and Latin-American variants of Fascism.3s The Cercle issued its own Cahiers, the first of which stated the basic principle of the creed as follows: Democracy is the greatest error of the past century...
...Nathan Rotenstreich, "For and against Emancipation: The Bruno Bauer Controversy" (Yearbook IV [1959] of the Leo Baeck Institute, London...
...But if Maurras was to find disciples in Franco and Salazar, Sorel can claim Mussolini— the ex-socialist turned nationalist...
...It is noteworthy that Paul Lafargue (1842-1911) dissented from this line: doubly noteworthy because, being married to Laura Marx, he incarnated in his person the Marxist tradition, so far as it was then understood in France...
...Proudhon never made a public reply, though he duly annotated his copy of Marx's book with critical marginalia...
...Only there was nothing original in all this: it was simply the doctrine of Pelloutier and the other founders of Syndicalism...
...This was hardly the most tactful way of weaning the workers from religious fanaticism, but then tact was never Guesde's long suit...
...This book presents a critical but friendly analysis of Israel and Zionism by an eminent sociologist who may fairly be described as a representative of the great tradition of French liberal humanism...
...Or, to put the matter in a different context, by a rereading of scholarly studies dealing with the role assigned in socialist theory to the problem of nationality in general and the Jewish problem in particular...
...To the extent that they took this notion as their conscious or unconscious starting point, virtually all 19th-century socialists (including Marx) based themselves on Rousseau...
...Lafargue had always stood out against anti-Semitism, and he deplored the policy of abstention practiced by his associates during the Dreyfus Affair...
...There is hardly a theme of modern anti-Semitism not already sounded by this pamphleteer of the 1880's...
...For the rest he saw quite clearly that writers like Toussenel, who imagined themselves to be fighting capitalism, were in fact promoting it...
...20 They were a race of sterile intermediaries, productive of nothing original, whether in commerce or in philosophy.21 Nor had they really invented monotheism: the Hebrew language possessed no abstract concepts and thus could not have given expression to metaphysical ideas...
...Leroux's publication of a dramatized version of Job, in 1866, initiated a controversy with Renan who, in a study of the Semitic languages, had assigned to the Semites an inferior rank among the races of mankind...
...Writing to Albert Richard in 1870, before his dispute with Marx had broken into the open, he observed that the leading German socialists were largely Jews "that is, exploiters and bourgeois...
...This was the moment when liberalism began to disintegrate as the cohesive doctrine of European society...
...Anti-Semitism thus became an issue in the quarrel between the "ancients" and the "modems": between -those who represented the tradition of a purely "French" socialism (whether Blanquist or Proudhonist), and a new generation brought up on the internationalist creed.29 In the circumstances it is remarkable that when in 1898 the Socialists finally decided to take a stand on the issue of "revision" (of the original sentence imposed upon Dreyfus), they were able, after some initial confusion, to find common ground, but only to the extent of declaring that the Jewish aspect of the Affaire was irrelevant...
...De la justice, IV, 134-35...
...Pure Anarchism (as distinct from Anarchosyndicalism, which was at least semi-Marxist) was then a dying movement and no longer possessed an important following among the industrial working class, but it still had a hold upon some elements of the intelligentsia and the proletariat...
...It stood for a principle (equality before the law) which had been compromised by the travesty of justice imposed by the original court-martial...
...32 For the 19th-century German background to the Emancipation see Nicholas Lobkowicz, "Marx's Attitude Toward Religion," in Marx and the Western World, Lobkowicz ed...
...At any rate one can say that by 1900 the poisonous legacy of the past had been shaken off...
...Liberalism—whether of the Voltairian French or the utilitarian English variety—did not, of course, do away with social inequality...
...nor did he, for all his endless talk of Nietzschean heroism...
...After all, the first step is the one that counts, and the decisive step in the intellectual pre-history of Fascism was taken in the Cercle Proudhon: appropriately named after Marx's old enemy...
...However sterile (he later modified this stand), this sectarianism at least had the effect of focusing the attention of his supporters on what mattered most to them: the class struggle...
...The difficulty in describing it is that it came from Quite distinct and uncoordinated parts of the political and intellectual spectrum...
...During these years he was supported by wealthy SaintSimonists, including the banker Isaac Pereire, a notable competitor of the Rothschilds...
...cited in J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism: The Romantic Phase (1961), p. 70...
...24 This was something very different from Marx's private jokes about Lassalle, or even his public sneers about Jewish financiers...
...If one did not—and the Jews plainly did not, even if they took the extreme step of having themselves baptized —one was indeed a Staatsbuerger, with all the usual political and civil rights, but not (to the nationalists) a German...
...From a theoretical viewpoint, his personal psychology—which was quite simply that of an emancipated German Jew of his generation—is considerably less important than his failure to work out a satisfactory doctrine of citizenship...
...What needs some explanation is that an entire section of the labor movement, led by the Anarchists and the Anarchosyndicalists, at the start of the A/ - faire affected indifference to the issue, or even adopted a frankly anti-Semitic tone.31 After what has been said about the Proudhonist tradition, this in itself should occasion no surprise, but two points are noteworthy...
...It is hardly surprising that the actual leaders of Syndicalism regarded him with a good deal of skepticism...
...Anti-Semitism could and did become an element of the primitive system of ideas in which the anticapitalist reaction of the 1830's and 1840's at first presented itself...
...18 THESE EDIFYING SENTIMENTS were for private consumption only...
...Maurras himself had no use for nationalsocialism...
...Proudhon, is too well-known to need an introduction, nor is it necessary to go into details of his stormy career as a theorist of early socialism and the ancestor of at any rate one branch of the anarchosyndicalist movement...
...New York: Praeger, 1961...
...nor would it ever matter to Sorel's progeny...
...It could be summed up by saying that moral behavior is individual behavior...
...9 Walter Ullman, A History of Political Thought: The Middle Ages (London: 1965), pp...
...Ibid., p. 209...
...It is not for nothing that the Christians called them deicides...
...A brief consideration of this latter topic concludes the essay and brings it back to its starting point...
...But in that case what became of the "class standpoint...
...Leroux disputed this judgment, while Renan for his part questioned Leroux's competence as a Hebrew scholar...
...Three months later, following another batch of official charges against Dreyfus (the last), the Guesdist parliamentarians refused to sponsor a "revision" of the original trial, while a formal declaration by the party's national council sounded the sectarian note: what mattered was the social revolution, not an alleged injustice committed against an individual...
...Son commerce malpropre prosperait, lorsque, it y a dens ans, on decouvrit le pot-aux-roses...
...His celebrated quarrel with Marx in 1846-47 is not very relevant here either, save insofar as it gave him an opportunity to vent in private some rather surprising sentiments on the subject of Judaism: sentiments by no means congruent with the currently fashionable image of Proudhon as an amiable, if slightly eccentric, theorist of the early labor movement, confronted with a disputatious and dictatorial rival in the person of Marx...
...Quite clearly it was not, any more than it was to his pupil Mussolini, until the latter for tactical reasons adopted racial antiSemitism on the German pattern in 1938...
...At first sight, it is not obvious why this should have induced its editor to take an anti-Semitic line, but Malon— an autodidact who had learned to read at the late age of twenty—had been brought up on Proudhon and inherited the spirit of his master...
...Toussenel had inter alia poured abuse upon the Protestants, a circumstance unlikely to endear him to the numerous Fourierist sympathizers in the United States...
...That a particular form of socialist anti-Semitism arose in 19th-century Europe may have been due to transitory factors which are no longer operative...
...It is more to the point that, as the same author observes, "An authentic and complete history of Fourierism and its influence would have to cover much territory, settlements ranging from the prairies of mid-nineteenth century America to the kibbutzim of modern Israel...
...It was the time of the Panama scandal and the ensuing nationalist wave associated with General Boulanger: a movement soon joined by some of the more chauvinist Blanquists...
...38 Horowitz notes that Sorel began to formulate his viewpoint on this topic in the Cahiers de la Quinzaine from 1901 onward...
...80 if...
...Thus in the same passage, after the Hitlerian outburst just quoted, one may read the grotesque sentence: "La haine du juif, comme de l'Anglais, doit titre un article de notre foi politique...
...It is this streak of primitive barbarism— in the literal sense of hostility to civilization as such: civility being an urban accomplishment— that connects Proudhon with Bakunin and his progeny...
...26 For Malon's writings, see Silberner, "French Socialism and the Jewish Question," pp...
...1 ' Leroux forms part of the tradition of Christian socialism...
...Blanqui mss., 9587, p. 305...
...25 While Blanquism gradually faded out in the 1880's and 1890's, its more rational adherents amalgamating with the Marxist group founded in 1880 by Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, the Proudhonist inheritance was taken up by Benoit Malon (1841-93) whose Revue socialiste from 1885 onward became the principal vehicle of reformist or "possibilist" socialism...
...It has always proclaimed that a grand epoch will come, to which has been given the name of Messiah's Kingdom...
...J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism: The Romantic Phase...
...The sect indeed went considerably beyond its founder in propagating a synthesis of Judaism and Christianity in a coming "religion of mankind...
...Paris: Etudes de Marxologie No...
...In his writings, Blanqui adopts the then customary identification of French capitalism with high finance, and of the latter with Jewish bankers, but he does not make much of it, apart from some standard abuse of the Rothschilds...
...Inaugural Lecture...
...My purpose has rather been to retrace the broad outlines of the story and to throw out a few general suggestions concerning the dialectic of anticapitalism and anti-Semitism...
...It would have pained him had he known in 1918 that Lenin held a poor opinion of his essays on the philosophy of science in which he had tried his hand at metaphysics in the Bergsonian manner...
...The meeting ground between his disciples and the more radical adherents of Maurras in the Paris of the years 190814 was furnished by a study group known to the initiated as the Cercle Proudhon...
...More or less the same holds good for the Syndicalist movement, although its aims were more revolutionary, Syndicalism having turned its back on parliamentary democracy as being a bourgeois institution...
...In fairness it should be added that in 1898 a campaign in favor of Dreyfus began in the most important of the Anarchist journals, S. Faure's Libertaire...
...As conceived by the true founders of the movement, it had a rational core that embodied the authentic strivings of a real labor movement...
...the moral shock delivered to the conscience of most Frenchmen—not least the respectable section of the Right typified by the Gaullists—by Hitler's "final solution...
...But this will not do with later writers who did not suffer from Fourier's psychological quirks, and who had no particular reason for identifying the Jews collectively with habits of lying and stealing...
...Sorel's favorite pupil, Edouard Berth, subsequently claimed with good reason that le fascisme avant la lettre had come to birth in the Cercle Proudhon...
...Rodrigues, like Gustave d'Eichthal, belonged to the group of youthful Jewish intellectuals who joined the sect around 1825 or a little later...
...Leroux was convinced, like Toussenel though for different reasons, that the Jews as a group were somehow identified with the phenomenon of capitalism...
...Op...
...Respectable bourgeois liberalism (frequently represented by Protestants belonging to the haute bourgeoisie) had always been immune to the noisier and more vulgar forms of anti-Semitism...
...And because the Revolution had let loose, at one and the same time, an overdue liberation from outworn constraints and an unprecedented orgy of the crudest kind of individualism, it was inevitable that part of the emotional reaction against these phenomena should be directed against the Jews—an unpopular community which seemed to have derived an altogether disproportionate advantage from the collapse of the ancien regime...
...All this was normal and to be expected...
...But they were also working with the Russian nihilists and other conspiratorial sects...
...No one ever expected Sorel to make the smallest sacrifice for the sake of anything or anybody...
...The fact that most of these immigrants were workers and came from countries where a Jewish labor movement had begun to form, naturally caused some reappraisal of the Jewish problem among French Socialists, some of whom began to sympathize with Zionism, while others maintained that the problem had to be solved by the countries concerned...
...Still, within its limitations, such an account may be useful if it establishes a perspective from which the events can be seen to have possessed a logic of their own...
...See Beyond Marx: The Faith and Works of Hendrik de Man, by Peter Dodge (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1966), passim, for a rather apologetic treatment of this important topic...
...Sorel thought of the Jewish question as an aspect of what he regarded as the decomposition of traditional European culture under the combined impact of capitalism, liberalism, and secular rationalism...
...Where possible I have gone back to the sources, but for material on the early French socialists I am primarily indebted to Silbemer...
...The first French "Marxists" of the 1880's were largely innocent of any real understanding of Marx's theories: a circumstance which did not bother him, since—unlike some of his later followers—he was convinced that an adequate grasp of the subject would eventually evolve from the maturation of the movement...
...In particular he detested the Jews...
...Par sa nature, la femme est dans un etat de demoralisation constante...
...The most shattering event of the period, the short-lived Paris Commune of 1871, falls outside our theme, save insofar as it helped to speed the collapse of Proudhonism and divided Proudhon's spiritual legacy among the conflicting schools of anarchism and Marxism...
...But this —while acceptable to the Anarchists, as well as to Jaures, or to Christians like Peguywas not specifically Marxist...
...neither is it irrelevant that these sentiments were activated by the prominence of Jewish financiers among the oligarchy in control of the Orleanist regime of 1830-48...
...Fourier, Oeuvres completes, 2d ed...
...Fourier seems to have anticipated Disraeli and Moses Hess, though it does not follow that he had any influence on them...
...an epoch in which religious doctrine shall be presented in all the generality of which it is susceptible...
...They represent "industrial feudalism," newly personified by "the cosmopolitan Jew . . . Europe is entailed to the domination of Israel...
...The lead taken by prominent Syndicalists on this occasion drew violent protests from Jean Longuet (Marx's grandson) in the Socialist 1'Humanite, and from Gustave Herve and Sebastien Faure in the Anarchist Guerre Sociale...
...What allied him with Bakunin, and in the end facilitated the division of his spiritual kingdom between Marxists and Bakuninists (for his followers in the 1870's split up between those two) was the strain of primitivism in his mental make-up...
...SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS 18 Victor Considerant, La Destine sociale, 2d ed...
...Nolte also suggests that "the precipitating factor was the collaboration on the newspaper Action Francaise of the highly gifted son of the working class, George Valois...
...Sorel was far from being innocent of this ideological concoction and its murderous consequences...
...See also his article "Quelques pretentions juives," Independance, III (1912), where the Jews are collectively accused of subverting Christian civilization, undermining decent moral standards, and encouraging the spread of pornographic literature...
...The Guesdists (with individual exceptions) adopted what they considered a Marxist position and what was in effect a sectarian one: namely that while Dreyfus was probably innocent, and racial anti-Semitism was rubbish, the whole affair was of no concern to the proletariat...
...The reasons can be summarized under various heads: • the experience of the German occupation, which drove Frenchmen of all political beliefs (and some who had none) into the Resistance movement...
...Sorel did not change his way of life and never suffered even the most trifling inconvenience for his inflammatory writings...
...When he called the "general strike" a necessary myth, he meant that it was something in which the labor movement had to believe if it wished to transcend bourgeois society...
...University of Notre Dame Press, 1967, p. 303 f.) This is not the place to engage in the tangled issue of Marx's paradoxical and rather selfcontradictory utterances on the Jewish question...
...For a revelatory specimen, see the following (unfortunately not translatable) passage from an article by the veteran Anarchist Emile Pouget in No...
...For this he had to thank his Hegelian inheritance, plus the fact that his personal commitment was to a kind of secular messianism which made sense only on assumptions he never spelled out, save here and there in his early writings: and his French followers around 1900 knew nothing of the Paris Manuscripts...
...For the pre-history of this incident see also Haubtmann, Marx et Proudhon (Paris: 1947...
...27 $. Before 1914 this was hardly an issue...
...As a rationalist he disliked the Church...
...It is, after all, arguable that anti-Semitism (or antiJudaism) will continue to persist within Western culture, and that it must necessarily represent a problem for socialists...
...In practical terms the whole issue was trivial, since around 1900 there were fewer than 100,000 Jews in France: about half of them in Paris and of these about half were recent immigrants from Russia and Poland...
...To the end, the argument turned upon the issue of "abstract justice" versus the "class standpoint...
...Notebooks of P.-J...
...But "abstract liberty," like "abstract justice," was not a Marxist slogan...
...But French industry did not depend on Jewish merchantbankers and the French labor move ment confronted quite different problems...
...29 This topic is neglected by Silberner, al though he notes, reasonably enough, that the Marxist Parti Ouvrier Frangais of Guesde and Lafargue took the lead in warning the workers to pay no attention to the anti-Semites...
...By fire or fusion, or by expulsion, the Jew must disappear...
...In retrospect the book appears as a bridge from his earlier pseudo-Marxism to his subsequent conversion to BergsoncumNietzsche...
...410 if...
...Lastly, there were the "revisionists of the Right," including professional Army officers like Picquart—a Catholic, a conservative, and a nationalist—who quite simply felt that the honor of the Army had been besmirched by the behavior of their superiors in the military hierarchy...
...46-51...
...In either case they had no use for Sorel, nor he for them...
...There was, however, a respectable alternative to the prevailing individualist creed: an alternative, moreover, which could draw upon the authority of Rousseau...
...Fourier had come to see Jewish emanci pation as an aspect of modern society to which he was hostile: the unleashing of in dividualism...
...As usual in such cases, the campaigners chose the easiest target they could find: not the haute bourgeoisie protestante, which carried real weight in the country (in the person of Guizot it virtually ran the government under Louis Philippe), but the Rothschilds and their associates...
...But they never set the tone: it was the gentile leaders of the school, principally Enfantin and Saint-Amand Bazard, who laid down the basic principles of Saint-Simonism, including the doctrine that Jewish monotheism foreshadowed the coming unity and solidarity of mankind...
...335 ff...
...Blanqui's anti-Semitism was of the 18th-century variety...
...It is irrelevant that he also dragged up some of the standard abuse of the Jews as "parasites, merchants, usurers, etc.," whose emancipation was among "the most shameful" of all "the recent vices" of contemporary society...
...However, before briefly crossing the Rhine (and then recrossing it, for the purpose of taking a look at Proudhon's disciples and their behavior during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the century), we must give some attention to the socialism of the 1840's...
...All the same, it seems a trifle odd to dismiss the topic with the remark that he "tried to bribe the Rothschilds with the Kingdom of Jerusalem if they would finance his projects...
...3s Ernst Nolte, in Three Faces of Fascism (New York: Holt Rinehart, 1966), p. 71, gives a brief account of this fusion of nationalism with pseudo-socialism...
...None of this is to suggest that the Jewish problem was of major importance to Sorel...
...For the general background see H. J. Hunt, Le Socialisme et le romantisme en France (Oxford: 1935), passim...
...His heir was to emerge on Italian soil (for Sorel had a following there too), and it was not to be the saint of Communism, Antonio Gramsci, but his murderer: Mussolini...
...One may also call it the liberation of the individual from constraints not specifically laid down by law...
...Institutional morality merely sets limits to the manner in which people conduct their lives...
...Its irrational glorification of violence and terror was duly inherited by Stalinists and Fascists alike, and to this day forms a common bond between them...
...311 ff...
...Even so, his repudiation of anti-Semitism was somewhat halting...
...44 V I I F, IN THE LIGHT of what has here been said, one were asked to describe the situation in France since 1945, one might venture something like the following: whereas until that date there existed a specifically socialist variant of anti-Semitism, both within the French labor movement and on its intellectual fringe, this is today no longer the case...
...and translated into English as The End of the Jewish People...
...The Radicals (as any candid history of the Dreyfus Affair shows plainly enough) took their time before they entered the arena, and then they speedily converted the struggle for justice into a partisan campaign against clericalism and the military...
...In the first place, Proudhon's lifelong obsession with the idea of "justice"— however absurd it might appear to the Guesdists—formed a counterweight to the anti-Jewish mania he had transmitted to his followers...
...Some account must also be taken, however, of the two other major currents within the French socialist movement before and after the cataclysm of 1871: the reformist trend associated with Louis Blanc and the "Jacobin" tradition, as exemplified by Auguste Blanqui...
...It is significant that the dividing line within and between the various groups (there was no unified Socialist party before 1905) corresponded in the main to the division between those who stuck to tradition, and the innovators of the 1880's and 1890's, whether Marxists, Syndicalists, or democratic Socialists of the Jauresian persuasion...
...To put it differently, there might be a socialist ethic, but there was no Marxist ethic, unless the Marxists were prepared to claim the inheritance of traditional humanism...
...It is noteworthy that the Guesdist P.O.F...
...cit., p. 5...
...Silberner, ibid., p. 198...
...Whatever Proudhon wrote or said, he was always in deadly earnest...
...The argument was echoed by the utopian communist Theodore Dezamy in his L'Organisation de la liberte (Paris: 1846...
...The circumstance has often been noted that the followers of Saint-Simon comprised a fair proportion of youthful Jewish intellectuals, for whom the new socialist faith became a vehicle of spiritual emancipation from religious orthodoxy...
...Toussenel may be described as an antiSemite who also happened to be a socialist...
...Catholic opinion, with the exception of a handful of Christian socialists (eventually to find an eloquent champion in Charles Peguy), was traditionally unfriendly to the Jews on every possible count: political, social, religious...
...Paris, 1846-48], I, 61...
...Although this particular situation is unlikely to recur (if only because history never repeats itself), the problems from which it arose still await a solution...
...and passim...
...This is the side of his teaching that links him to Marx and to the socialist tradition generally...
...SOREL IS IN A FUNDAMENTAL SENSE one of those writers who were responsible for the temporary triumph of Fascism in Italy, and for its virulence in France during the 1930's and 1940's...
...Although a rationalist himself, Fourier in these passages clearly reflects traditional Catholic attitudes widespread even among people who on grounds of principle favored Jewish emancipation as being the best means of integrating the Jews within the general French community (and incidentally improving their moral character...
...3-4, 1953) dates the change in Sorel's attitude from 1912, when he published an apol ogy of the anti-Semitic writer Urbain Gohier, who had recently broken with the Socialist movement...
...For Bakunin's general anti-Semitism see Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, ch...
...The anti-Semitism of Fourier, upon which historians of the socialist movement have frequently remarked, becomes comprehensible against this background...
...Proudhon had the countryman's instinctive dislike and distrust for that side of modern civilization which rests upon the subjugation of nature...
...43 For Lazare and the beginnings of proZionism among French Socialists see Silberner, "French Socialism and the Jewish Question," pp...
...What matters in our context is that—unlike his fantastic cosmology, which was quietly abandoned by his disciples—his anti-Semitism took hold among them...
...The way out of the dilemma was that adopted by the SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS Anarchists in 1898-1900, when (after some soul-searching) they sided with the Dreyfusards in the name of liberty, while refusing to pay special attention to the Jewish issue...
...It was this side of the national tradition that stood in danger, for Jewish rationalism was the mortal enemy of myth...
...especially pp...
...21 Cesarisme et christianisme, I, p. 139...
...La femme est un diminutiv d'homme...
...Socialist opinion was split...
...Solomon F. Bloom, "Karl Marx and the Jews," Jewish Social Studies, IV (1942...
...See also A. Lehning, Introduction to Michel Bakounine et les con flits dans l'Internationale, 1872...
...Here are some samples: Jews—Write an article against this race which poisons everything, by meddling everywhere without ever joining itself to another people.—Demand their expulsion from France, with the exception of individuals married to Frenchwomen.—Abolish the synagogues...
...And, what is more, their assertion that socialist internationalism only benefited the "kikes" (youtres) at the expense of honest Frenchmen clearly struck a popular chord: otherwise they would not have continued their agitation in the Anarchist Terre libre which ran a simultaneous campaign against capitalism, philo-Semitism, Jewish immigrant workers, and "the Judaized gang of Jaures...
...Likewise, the nation was not conceived in politico-moral, but in racial terms...
...cit., pp...
...Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1955...
...This is clearly an echo of Tacitus' characterization of the Jews as odium generis humani...
...Like Proudhon and Bakunin, he was not enamored of "German socialists," especially if they also happened to be Jews...
...Presumably for this reason he saw no harm in giving it some encouragement...
...77 f; Silberner deals rather briefly with this subject (Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, rage, pp...
...But ",the Republic" meant a great deal more to them than a particular form of government...
...Pelloutier, the founder of the movement, had been of middle-class origin too, but he was a martyr who literally killed himself in the service of the cause...
...To reconcile Judaism and Christianity") 6 to the romantic visions of Prosper Enfantin and the mystical exaltation of Emile Barrault...
...1 (1942...
...A comparatively recent American study of Sorel, in which the Jewish issue comes in for brief mention, sees an extenuating circumstance in his private friendship with Jewish intellectuals, and in his evident absorption in the philosophy of Henri Berg son...
...Protestantism was respectable and influential...
...This was the popular, or populist, side of a movement to which Sorel shortly afterwards became a convert: on January 1, 1912, when he published a lengthy and violent anti-Semitic tirade in support of Gohier's demand that the French learn to defend their traditions against the Jewish inva GEORGE LICHTHEIM lion...
...When these expectations had to be abandoned, it became popular, even among socialists, to blame the Jews...
...Silberner, in "Anti-Jewish Trends in French Revolutionary Syndicalism" (Jewish Social Studies, XV, No...
...Rothschild, Cremieux, Marx, Fould malignant beings, bilious, envious, acrid, etc., etc., who hate us...
...As Sorel saw it, French nationalism was in danger of being severed from its medieval roots— though he was (like Maurras) an atheist and did not believe a word of the Christian story...
...The Jews, with the help of neo-Jacobins like Clemenceau and Jaures, had won a victory over the Church, hence over the mystical side of French patriotism...
...Consideration of this topic brings one down to the crisis of 1914-18, the Russian Revolution, and the rise of reactionary countercurrents...
...This is what we call freedom...
...Even so, it may still be pertinent to ask what made it a moral issue for men like Proudhon and Sorel...
...For by the beginning of the 20th century it was no longer plausible to make an issue of "Jewish bankers...
...36 Irving Louis Horowitz, Radicalism and the Revolt Against Reason (London: Routledge, 1961, New York: Humanities Press), p. 41...
...It will then, I think, become apparent that what occurred between, roughly speaking, 1800 and 1950 was a debate over a problem that has not yet lost its topical interest...
...See Daniel Halevy, La vie de Proudhon 1809-1847 (Paris: 1948), passim...
...This movement, which had arisen on the ruins of the Paris Commune (and freed itself from at least some of the illusions which had helped to promote that historic disaster) was necessarily eclectic in its outlook...
...But how did one distinguish one kind of violence from another...
...Marxism was associated with Germany—and with a German Jew at that...
...the corresponding, though less violent and dramatic, reaction of Communists and other left-wingers to the anti-Semitic aspects of Stalin's reign during the dictator's last mad years...
...III 25 For Blanqui see Alan B. Spitzer, The Revolutionary Theories of Louis Auguste Blanqui (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), pp...
...There is no evidence that Marx's essay of 1844 on the Jewish question played any part in disposing the French socialists to reconsider the topic...
...Pierre Monatte, Trois scissions syndicales (Paris: 1958), passim...
...12 Considerant, by now the official head of the school, retorted in the pages of La Democratie pacifique with an expression of relief at this parting of the ways...
...What can there be incommon between communism and high finance...
...Violence" was simply a fact of life, and had to be accepted as such...
...6 Lechevalier, Exposition du systeme social (Paris: 1832), P. 73...
...In principle, Judaism asserted the unity and universality of mankind, but in practice the Jews lived by the exploitation of others...
...IV 33 Marx to F. A. Sorge, November 5, 1880...
...It is common knowledge that Marx (in his Poverty of Philosophy (1847)—originally published in French un GEORGE LICHTHEIM der the title Misere de la Philosophie: Reponse a la Philosophie de la Misere de M. Proudhon)—had taken issue at some length with Proudhon's economic theories...
...New York: Columbia University Press, 1941...
...Malon for his part was on cordial terms with Rdouard Drumont whose celebrated pamphlet La France juive (1886) popularized the theme that France was being ruined by Jewish financiers who were corrupting the body politic...
...he was directly responsible for it, inasmuch as it was his patronage that made possible the fusion of nationalism with the old doctrines of Proudhon...
...Democracy, of course, was a Jewish invention, or at any rate the Jews profited from it, since it enabled them to go about their nefarious business unhindered...
...Some of these writings have clearly been inspired by the rise of fascism in Europe, the aftermath of the "final solution," the revival of traditional Russian antiSemitism in the U.S.S.R., and the ArabJewish hostilities consequent upon the establishment of Israel in 1948...
...See Selected Correspondence (Moscow: 1956), p. 404...
...Moreover, they did not believe that it was more "natural," in the sense of being in conformity with "human nature," than some other type of arrangement...
...Lafargue sensed this but was unable to assert himself effectively, thereby laying bare a flaw in the Marxist position: there was no way of formulating a position on the issue except in terms of simple, ordinary, human solidarity...
...Mention has already been made of the paradox which the "principles of 1789" cons...
...For the citizen of modern society conceives of himself as an autonomous person owing no obligations to others or to the community, save for duties that are either contractual or specifically laid down by law...
...20 Proudhon, France et Rhin, p. 260...
...On the other hand, Proudhon gives them no credit for the Jewish ancestry of Jesus and his disciples...
...Sorel had an answer to this too: the constructive side of the October Revolution (he said) was the achievement of Lenin, a true Russian...
...73-74...
...The founders of the movement were indeed closer to the industrial proletariat than were most Socialists, and their demand for what today would be called "workers' control" anticipated a key issue of the future...
...Although decked out with Marxist slogans, this was really no more than a revival of the traditional disdain for anything not directly concerned with the "class struggle" in its narrowest sense...
...The two men had no use for each other, and the rivalry of their respective followers carried over into a cleavage between supporters and opponents of Jewish emancipation...
...Other authors will be cited in passing, e.g...
...It was only toward the end of the century that this theme vanished from socialist literature...
...It was, he said, "inexcusable and inexplicable" that the Parti Ouvrier Francais should have tried to wash its hands of the matter...
...The subsequent rise of an anarchosyndicalist movement—in part influenced by Marxist ideas but also embodying something of the Proudhonist inheritance—is more germane to our theme, since the orientation this movement inherited from Proudhon was a factor in determining its initial attitude during the Dreyfus Affair...
...It is not as such part of my theme, which revolves around an earlier epoch...
...Leroux died in April 1871, during the brief reign of the Paris Commune, and was given a solemn burial by the Communards, presumably in recognition of his long years of service to the socialist cause...
...Work to be done.—What the peoples of the middle ages hated by instinct, I hate upon reflection, and irrevocably...
...New York: Collier, paper, 1962...
...Paris: 1849), II, 43...
...22 Proudhon, De la justice dans la revolution et dans l'eglise (Paris: 1858), I, 445...
...London: The English Universities Press, 1958, 1964...
...37 Ibid...
...It was precisely for this reason that to many Socialists the invocation of "class solidarity" rang hollow...
...II, 783-84...
...in economics and politics [it] permitted the establishment of the capitalist regime which destroys in the State that which democratic ideas dissolve in the spirit: namely the nation, the family, morals, by substituting the law of gold for the laws of blood...
...This was enough for Sorel (who years before had already complained about Saint-Simonian SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS tendencies among the parliamentary Socialists) to employ the standard vocabulary of anti-Semitism...
...In short, while preaching violence, he remained a typical bourgeois...
...Fourier (who had narrowly escaped the firing squad in 1793, when an anti-Jacobin insurrection in Lyons was suppressed) was hostile to the Revolution in general...
...is Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, pp...
...His followers, or at any rate the more active among them, soon reverted to his earlier manner.4 BEFORE TURNING TO this murky subject, it is worth casting a glance in the opposite direction: at the record of the rival socialist school, that of the Saint-Simonians...
...to a line consonant with the tradition of "republicanism," although it did not satisfy the "revisionists," for whom a matter of principle was at stake...
...The free man is morally sovereign, obeys no external authority, and follows the commands of his conscience...
...Yet, something can perhaps be said about the specific theme of this study—the relationship of socialism to the process of Jewish emancipation...
...On his assumptions it was indeed scarcely conceivable that Jesus should have been a Jew...
...This is a useful corrective to Silberner's account of the subject which emphasizes the nationalist and anti-Semitic agitation in France between 1910 and 1914...
...Professor Norman Cohn's account of the origins of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion) reflects nothing more sinister than a desire to concentrate on the purpose of this essay, which is to summarize one particular chapter in the interaction between the socialist movement and the drive for Jewish emancipation...
...This was not a trifling matter, for Charles Fourier was one of the two founders of the socialist tradition in France, Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) being the other...
...This was Charles Fourier in one of his more amiable moods and toward the end of his career when some of the rancor against Jews and Jacobins had gone out of him...
...Unless they were prepared to go the whole distance with the racialists, they could not, on their own principles, reject the demand that justice should be done to an individual unfairly charged with an act he had not committed...
...By tradition and instinct they belong to this restless, intriguing and exploitative bourgeois nationality...
...Thus when Malon introduced Drumont to Parisian workingmen, he followed a consistent line, just as he did in throwing his Revue socialiste open to the notorious anti-Semite Auguste Chirac (1838-1903) who had revived Toussenel's old battlecry2 8 It is true that in the 1890's a reaction set in: possibly because Socialist opinion had become alarmed by the anti-republican tendencies of the Boulangist movement, which climaxed (and collapsed) in 1889, the centenary of the Revolution...
...It signified a Stand (an estate) or rather the tax-paying subject of an authoritarian state whose government would presumably protect the citizens' rights, but did not regard them as the ultimate source of its own authority...
...cit., p. 517, quoted by Silberner, "French Socialism and the Jewish Question 1865-1914," Histcria Judaica, XVI [April 1954], 6-7...
...AT THE ROOT OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT— which triumphed in 1789 and to which the Jews in France, and subsequently in Germany and elsewhere in Europe, owed their emancipation—there lay an attitude toward morality which was quite new and, for its time and place, remarkably shocking...
...In retrospect one sees why Jewish emancipation—one of the principal achievements of the Enlightenment— should at such a time not merely have been called into question, but actually reversed in practice...
...3 It is equally irrele vant that in one of his last writings, La GEORGE LICHTHEIM fausse industrie (1835-36), he abandoned anti-Semitism in favor of Zionism...
...For the rest, it leaves the individual free to pursue his private interest as he sees it...
...did participate in the general left-wing campaign against militarism, clericalism, and anti-Semitism...
...For it is one of the ironies of the subject that Israel was in the end the only country where a largescale and successful experiment along Fourierist lines was undertaken: by Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe brought up on the socialist tradition which Charles Fourier had helped to found...
...To the participants, whichever side they took, this gigantic cataclysm was a great deal more important than the economic changes preceding and following the Revolution...
...Louis Blanc, who was an intellectual descendant of Considerant and Leroux, was an amiable Christian socialist, and his followers in the 1880's helped to promote reformist and "solidarist" ideas within the reigning bourgeois parties, notably the Radicals...
...cited by Silberner in "The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism," p. 1.) 2 For the philosophical implications of the clash between the ancient Aristotelian-Thomist and the new liberal-individualist view of society, see Alasdair Maclntyre, A Short History of Ethics (New York: Macmillan, 1966...
...From 1836 onward, he published an eight-volume Encyclopedie nouvelle largely devoted to the propagation of socialist ideas...
...and he hated it all the more bitterly because it was being promoted by former Saint-Simonians...
...Proudhon, the confused autodidact, adhered to both doctrines simultaneously...
...The philo-Semites, in fact, were suspected of being liberals even when they described themselves as socialists...
...Nothing could be sillier or a more complete waste of time...
...For the political implications of the doctrine, in the form Sorel gave it from 1907 onward, are evident...
...It also describes a way of looking at the world which the early socialists quite particularly disliked about the Jews, or at least about those Jews whom they regarded as typical...
...If individual Jews, such as Henri Bergson, broke away from the pattern, he was ready enough to praise them...
...Historia Judaica, XI (1949...
...its unfortunate terrorist aspects were due to the Jews...
...But in principle it was not possible for adherents of the Republic to deny that citizenship was open to all...
...Among others, it clears up a number of widely current misconceptions concerning the role of Hegelian and Marxian thinking in the evolution of socialist ethics...
...He did, however, in December 1847, commit to his private notebook a lengthy programmatic observation, the full text of which was only published in 1961...
...Sorel fancied himself a philosopher...
...As for Valois (whose real name was Alfred Georges Gressent), his doctrine has been called "a strange mixture of Nietzsche, Maurras, Sorel, and Christianity," though the Christian content is barely visible...
...Roman Rosdolsky, "La Neue Rheinische Zeitung et les Juifs," Cahiers de l'Institut de Science Economique Appliquee...
...See also Carnets, I, 133: "Les juifs n'iront jamais a Jerusalem...
...35 Sorel, Preface of 1905 to Materiaux d'une theorie du proletariat (Paris: 1919...
...FOUR YEARS AFTER the master's death, in 1869, his pupil George Duchene set the tone for the next generation: Citizens, when you hear it said that in a notoriously barbarous country [Russia] the population treats the Jews roughly, do not believe one treacherous word...
...Thus when Regnard published Aryens et Semites in book form in 1890, he was mildly censured by a reviewer in Malon's journal...
...Judaism was not...
...Monotheism is a creation of the Indo-Germanic spirit, and could not have arisen from any other SOCIALISM AND THE JEWS source.22 Proudhon is quite certain about " this, just as he knows that Italy and Poland have no hope of recovering their national independence...
...Individuals, being endowed (by Nature or by their Creator) with free will, are capable of behaving either morally or immorally toward each other, depending on whether or not they possess the strength of will required for the observance of certain ethical precepts: e.g...
...Sorel, who (unlike Proudhon) had read and assimilated Marx, knew all this well...
...The lengthy essay on the Jewish question which he published in January 1846 in the Revue Sociale bore the same title as Toussenel's scurrilous pamphlet: Les Juifs, rois de 1'epoque...
...4 Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, rage, pp...
...In this respect the Guesdist Parti Ouvrier Francais was just as democratic as its various "reformist" rivals...
...It was just this ambiguity that made it possible for some of them to switch from Syndicalism to extreme nationalism: both movements were antidemocratic, hence welcome...
...72 of La Sociale of September 20-27, 1896...
...The best it could offer the Jews was the hope that by assimilating German culture they would be recognized as members of the German Kulturgemeinschaft: a feeble solution which went to pieces after 1918...
...Metaphysical beliefs are irrelevant, hence any discrimination against religious minorities is irrational, unjustified, and contrary to the doctrine of equality under the law...
...this orientation turned him into one of the founders of socialism...
...cit., II...
...They were, he thought, doubly blameworthy, for they had once received the unique revelation of the unity of God and mankind...
...That some writers who formed part of the general tradition of socialism should have made their contribution to this peculiar achievement need not surprise us if we remember that the antiliberal strain had from the beginning involved a certain ambiguity about the principles of 1789: they were treated with reservations whose meaning disclosed itself when it was no longer "bourgeois democracy," but democracy as such, that came under fire after 1914...
...3-4 (1953) . "French Socialism and the Jewish Question 1865-1914," Historia Judaica, Vol...
...Notes 1 Although Silberner discusses this topic, it seems to me a decided weakness that he remains consistently at the historical level, while ignoring the philosophical dimension...
...1 I I T NEEDS TO BE SAID at the outset that the phenomenon of socialist anti-Semitism was in its origins the poisoned root of a tree planted—alongside the more familiar tree of liberty—in i he decades following the French Revolution...
...The bulk of the party followed Guesde in adopting a neutral stand, while its parliamentary representatives divided up individually between "revisionists," neutralists, and "patriots," i.e., supporters of the governmental line that Dreyfus was a traitor...
...What appealed to him in Bergson's philosophy was the antimechanist orientation and the critique of scientific positivism...
...His article series "Aryens et S6mites," first published in the Revue socialiste in 1887-89 and later expanded into a book, rang the changes upon the topic of Aryan superiority to the Semites, as did his later v ritings...
...33 The disputes, splits, and reunions, which made up much of the story of the next two decades, were tiresome enough...
...Professor J. L. Talmon who has given special attention to the Jewish component in the Saint-Simonian movement...
...That Considerant was far from sharing the mystical philo-Semitism of the Saint-Simonians is evident enough from his remark that Jewish messianism implied nothing more exalted than "the triumph of this people and —its rule over all the peoples of the world.13 " Toussenel, for his part, became the pioneer of a literature which linked the medieval image of the Jew as usurer to the populism of a society suddenly plunged into the maelstrom of early capitalism...
...28 Chirac, Les Rois de la Republique (Paris: 1888...
...One was a German if one belonged to the Volk...
...Let it simply be said that the movement's real founders—Fernand Pelloutier, Victor Griffuelhes, and the others who came together in the 1880's and 1890's— deserve a better fate than being treated as precursors of Sorel...
...In 1841-42 he edited the Revue independante, together with his friend and disciple George Sand, who shared his ideas and projected them in her novels...
...It becomes somewhat less surprising when one reflects that both parties to the dispute were reacting in suitably extravagant terms to the greatest politicoideological upheaval France and Europe had experienced for centuries: the destruction of theocratic monarchy as a system of government, and along with it the downfall of the Catholic Church...
...One could be a Jew-hater for different reasons: either because the Jews represented liberal rationalism, or because they had helped to pioneer capitalism, or because they were the carriers of that new abomination, international socialism...
...His anti-Semitism was part of this inheritance...
Vol. 15 • July 1968 • No. 4
