Armies and Politics: A Problem in the Third World
McCord, William
"Government in these days is a consequence solely of military power": so observed the great Islamic philosopher, al-Ghazali, when describing Moslem nations in 1100. His aphorism applies only...
...third force, made up of armies drawn from the new nations...
...In most developing nations, the same problem appears...
...Perhaps the professional judgment of American officers has value...
...Long-term support of military regimes by the United States serves only to keep the lid on potentially revolutionary situations which are bound to explode in the end...
...In Thailand, where the military directs everything from the production of leather products to canned goods, David Wilson has contended that the army's "ad ministrative free-wheeling has a tendency to run away with itself...
...And, as in the Sudan, military regimes have been toppled by civilian forces seeking a measure of democracy...
...We should, openly or not, put strings on current military assistance: to the degree that the government in power encourages democratization and social reform, a modicum of military assistance can be justified...
...Prior to 1920, Mexico had been the most militarist of Latin-American nations...
...Yet, too often, these new members of the elite were oriented to a traditional, feudal approach rather than to a modern democratic system...
...Finally, armies take power most easily when the mass of the population has lost faith in civilian authority or the civilian authority has faltered in its ability to manipulate the army...
...Many scholars have contended that the military can act as a neutral umpire between divisive forces, as a stabilizing force during periods of anarchy, and as a training school in which to forge a sense of national identity...
...Military aid to West-African nations can be defended as long as the military elites fulfill their promises of restoring civil liberties and parliamentary rule...
...The economy ground to a halt, "intra-elite" conflict paralyzed the newly appointed civilian rulers, and the military resumed control...
...From their ranks most of the leaders of the Egyptian revolution emerged...
...The choice [for Africa] has not been between oneparty and multi-party states," says sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein...
...How wise is this charity...
...In fact, the social origins, training, organization, history, and orientation of military corps differ from country to country...
...In addition, army leaders usually do not have the mentality to undertake large-scale economic planning...
...We are bound by various treaties to the support of certain military programs...
...We should utilize American military missions to train existing armies in techniques of aiding economic development, such as the construction of public utilities...
...We should gradually reduce military assistance to the point regarded as absolutely minimal by Third-World leaders...
...Two nations—Mexico and Turkey—offer historical experiences which may be relevant to other emerging countries...
...We can, in addition, encourage the use of armies in emerging nations as units in a strengthened U.N...
...Yet our government leaders have, in fact, indiscriminately handed out military toys, money, and medals to those generals in developing areas who have piously taken a pro-Western posture...
...Does Army Rule Facilitate the Growth of Democracy...
...As Eduardo Santos has written, military values and training are inherently antithetical to a democratic ethic: The military profession is poor schooling for learning the difficult art of government, for to govern well means to interpret, to reconcile, to respect the rights of all, to give freedom of expression to every opinion, to abide by the laws and never subordinate them to personal caprice, to have the courage to rectify mistakes, to ask for and listen to advice, to have patience, to realize that one owes one's power to the will of the people...
...Temporary crises, as in the Congo, may arise where military assistance is demanded, but these situations can best be handled by United Nations forces...
...The military's adoption of the final alternative, absolute domination of the polity, seems governed by several factors: First, the nation's traditional culture has direct relevance: the prevalence of military rule in contemporary Moslem countries, for example, is partially due to the fact that Islam has never made a distinction between military and civilian authority...
...The most recent explosions in the Middle East illustrate that point...
...Neither the United States nor the emerging nations gain from unquestioning support of military dictators...
...The recent coups d'etat in Indonesia, Nigeria, and Ghana appear to confirm Morris Janowitz's view that "the chance of [the army's] political involvement increases year by year after independence, while the contraction of the military's political role remains a highly problematic issue...
...Whether judged from the standpoint of American interests, the economic development of new nations, or the gradual democratization of the Third World, Demosthenes' dictum of 345 B.C...
...Our government wishes to reinforce the internal stability of presently "friendly" regimes and, thus, sends armaments to areas like South America...
...The bureaucratic style of army life can compound the problems already created in most nations by an overblown, unproductive, and often corrupt civil bureaucracy...
...Short-term military aid to the Shah of Iran, for example, can be useful during the period when he carries out revolutionary land reforms against the opposition of his own aristocracy...
...Second, the colonial background of a nation's army must also be taken into account...
...One must conclude, then, that with the exception of Mexico—and perhaps, eventually, such nations as Turkey, Egypt, Ghana, and Nigeria —dominance by a military elite seldom facilitates the growth of democracy...
...In the short run, therefore, American policy must be guided by more constrained aims...
...Our government wishes to sustain a balance of power in some regions and therefore has distributed tanks and jets with equal largesse to Israel and Jordan, Pakistan and India...
...The ideal goal for American foreign policy should be the eventual disarmament and true neutralization of the Third World...
...Even unpopular governments can retain their power if they are sufficiently clever at placating the army, juggling its officers, and creating countervailing forces...
...At worst, the dominance of a General Stroessner in Paraguay has been considered the most reactionary blockade to social reform...
...5) or, as in many countries today, they can seize complete political power (Egypt...
...still holds true: "Close alliances with despots are never safe for free states...
...In Ethiopia army officers compose the nation's most popular jazz ballads, while the police force is building the country's first symphony orchestra...
...Haile Selassie has distributed power in a way which balances the army, the police, and the Imperial Bodyguard against each other...
...Because of these shackles, military regimes have generally produced a sorry record of economic growth...
...The masses that came were disunited, divided groups of stragglers...
...policy...
...force...
...In the unlikely event of an international invasion of Latin America, United States forces are now and will continue to be the only genuine defense...
...If by "stability" America really means democracy, then it is clear in Latin America and other areas, as Edwin Lieuwen has written, that ". . . insofar as the military aid programs have increased the political influence of the armed forces, the prospects for democracy have suffered...
...In moments of crisis only the massive intervention of American troops, planes, and ships has fulfilled Pentagon dreams...
...The Balance of Power Theory: America has played a dangerous game in Asia and the Middle East by arming competing nations...
...Third, the social origins of a nation's officers sometimes plays a decisive role...
...At the beginning of the revolution, Nasser had assumed that all of Egypt would fall in behind the army vanguard "in serried ranks...
...All of these considerations point to a major reversal in American foreign policy, a transformation which ultimately would serve the interests of both the emerging nations and the United States...
...Even Latin America's long history of armed coups d'etat can be partly attributed to the military traditions left behind by Spain...
...The army can command obedience and it can force through reforms in certain restricted areas (such as instituting the very popular land reforms of Egypt) ; but it cannot magically create social unity out of "divided groups of stragglers...
...And certain social groups, stirred by the "revolution in expectations," were totally denied political expression prior to 1950...
...A sudden, unilateral American de-escalation of military assistance would then do little to change the situation and might well increase the domestic military costs of new nations...
...It is also apparent that American military assistance can, in itself, contribute to revolutionary passions...
...Crowds did eventually come, and they came in endless droves," he later recognized, "—but how different is the reality from the dream...
...American foreign-policy makers have assumed that such men as Jimenez, Trujillo, and Chiang Kai-shek can form a barrier against international Communism as well as an assurance of domestic "stability...
...In Indonesia, military rule over many sectors of the economy has destroyed the nation's potential wealth...
...Each of these strategies—even when judged solely by the military or commercial interests of the United States—is open to serious question: The Military Bastion Theory: The majority of our military assistance goes to nations like Formosa and South Korea which are regarded as essential outposts in the perimeter surrounding China...
...His aphorism applies only too well in many of the developing countries of our time...
...it has been between one-party states and either anarchy or military regimes or various combinations of the two...
...The "first class" of new officers which graduated from the academy had no stake in preserving the status quo...
...Even today, realists in Latin America recognize the uselessness of their armies as a defense against foreign aggression...
...An immediate end to all military assistance programs is, however, hardly a realistic goal...
...Finally, it need hardly be said that the officer class, like any oligarchy, may develop a stake in the existing economy and refuse to initiate any fundamental reforms which threaten its position...
...Eventually, they felt strong enough to shift the regional generals' commands, thus undermining local bases of personal power...
...On the other hand, American dissenters—from the "New Left" to middle-aged liberals to old radicals—have usually regarded the military ruler in emerging nations with unrelenting hostility...
...At their best, as in Egypt, military rulers have sustained a moderate pace of development...
...If they encourage either or both, they weaken their own hold by encouraging independent centers of power and decision...
...Various more or less legitimate claims have been advanced to defend the role of military elites in the process of economic development: Clearly, armies can serve a useful function in equipping their recruits with the basic skills demanded in a modern economy...
...India's 500,000-men force has so far refrained from political intervention because, in part, the officer corps received superb British training aimed at creating a professionally oriented army...
...When a real party system began to function between 1950 and 1960, as Richard Frey has observed, the social groups which had previously been slighted used their newly achieved political power in a "vindictive or irresponsible fashion...
...While not an inevitable stage in world history, the military assumption of power does seem to occur frequently in the emerging nations at this particular moment...
...From this standpoint, the temporary ascendance of military men could be a useful starting point in creating the "preconditions" for democracy...
...If they do not encourage or tolerate independent activity, they will see the country standing still...
...Further, although they seldom exercise their power, armies are in a unique position to push forward economic reforms...
...I do not wish to imply that military rule is the wave of the future, for an equally important but often overlooked trend is toward the overthrow of military dictators by democratic elements (as recently in Columbia, Venezuela, and the Sudan) . Nonetheless, the incursion of praetorian guards into political, economic, and social affairs strikes some observers as one of a very few gloomy alternatives open to developing nations...
...Wallerstein himself prefers one-party regimes since, he claims, they are the most "democratic" of the possibilities...
...Beyond the direct costs, army rule can hobble a developing economy in various other crucial ways...
...Because of their command over the means of violence, armies can, if they wish, crush religious obscurantism, eliminate a feudal land-holding class, or expropriate wealthy classes who waste capital...
...Ironically, total disarmament in the Third World might involve an even greater American committment abroad, for the emerging nations would still require a shield against international aggression...
...he has seconded army leaders to civilian posts when their personal influence became dangerous...
...In the crucible of warfare, the armies of Southeast Asia have proven to be paper tigers...
...In the early twenties President Obreg6n incorporated various splinter armies into the federal force, putting them on a single payroll...
...But naive historical determinism hardly does justice to the people of Africa...
...Moreover, public opinion in emerging nations would undoubtedly welcome the use of their armies as world guardians of peace...
...Calles and Amaro also guided their troops into constructive activities, such as road-building...
...The formation of a strongly armed, U.N.-staffed "cordon sanitaire" along the Arab-Israeli or Indian-Pakistani borders would be a far saner approach than the encouragement of regional arms races...
...Politically, armies in the developing world act in one of five ways: 1) in rather rare instances, they abstain totally from politics (India...
...American generals presumably count on the troops of these regions as a decisive military force in times of crisis...
...By 1938, however, the actions of four generals (Obregbn, Calles, Amaro, and Cardenas) had finally curbed the army's domination of politics...
...In this task, they appear no better qualified than their civilian counterparts...
...As always in human history, the temptation exists to use "defensive" weapons in launching a preventive war...
...Since neither Russia nor the West gain from "small" wars of this type, the great powers could realistically support such a U.N...
...Plus ca change, moins ga change...
...Neither peasants nor industrial workers could find a political outlet for their grievances...
...Both the official and the dissenting American opinions about the military in developing nations have often been myopic, for both sides have implicitly assumed that military men are always cut from the same mold...
...In Egypt, for example, the decline of Farouk began in the thirties when, for the first time, the King allowed men of lower-middle class backgrounds into the previously aristocratic military college...
...An American policy which would encourage disarmament could reduce the economic burdens born by these nations, help to release those elements seeking liberalization and social reform, and relieve us of the onus of backing unpopular military oligarchies...
...This rather meager list of the advantages of army rule exhausts the economic benefits which the military may confer upon their countries...
...Whatever one's opinion about the American presence in Vietnam, the military situation there clearly demonstrates the bankruptcy of the Southeast Asia bastion theory...
...The lesson is clear...
...Egypt may be considered an exception to the rule, for Nasser has managed to continue a modest rate of growth (albeit one bought at the cost of enormous foreign debts) . At the worst, as in Peron's time, military regimes can demolish a prospering economy...
...Does Army Rule Facilitate Economic Development...
...For anyone concerned with the gradual evolution from military rule into democracy, Turkey represents another classic, if currently dis couraging, case history...
...If one dismisses the democratic ideal as a goal for developing nations, can one still defend military rule as the best way to dredge stagnant economies from the mire of poverty...
...Rather than directly challenging other generals, they began at the bottom by modernizing the training and equipment of enlisted men and by gradually pruning out guerrilla-type elements...
...The Internal Stability Theory: The American use of military despots to maintain domestic tranquility in the Third World is a quixotic attempt to alter the drift of global politics...
...3) they can function as an instrument for regulating conflicting civilian elements (Turkey) ; 4) they can serve as a political "party" in their own right (Indonesia...
...The common way for a leader in traditional Islam to form a state," Manfred Halpern has observed, "was to conquer...
...The military also tried to incorporate civilian elements in its ranks but, unlike Mexico, it did so too little and too late...
...It is increasingly apparent that armies today will also dethrone authoritarian and supposedly charismatic leaders: e.g., the eclipse of Nkrumah and Sukarno...
...While Nasser has successfully, even brilliantly maintained his dominion for some 14 years, he has publicly admitted his bafflement over the difficulties involved in securing unified public allegiance...
...Managerial talents acquired by the officer corps can also, under some conditions, be applied in directing certain types of industry— particularly those "labor-intensive" enterprises which require the sweat of large masses of men, rather than the technical competence of their leaders...
...50 years from now, historians may look back on Latin-American militarism as merely a stage in the development of representative institutions...
...Any reasonable economic balance sheet would, however, show that the disadvantages of military government far outweigh its possible advantages...
...Recent events in Latin America seem to have decreased the power of the military, as new countervailing forces in urban centers increase in importance...
...We cannot, therefore, delude ourselves with the comforting theory that once an army establishes the "prerequisites" for democracy and economic development, it will fade away, yielding the reins of government to civilian elements...
...A more realistic approach is to examine the ways by which an army, once having controlled a nation, has actually been retired into a neutral role...
...American Military Assistance Policy In a maze of conflicting justifications, one can disengage three— equally mistaken—master strategies which govern American military assistance in the Third World: Our government wishes to build military bastions against international Communism and, consequently, gives aid to the military dictators of South Vietnam, Formosa, South Korea, and Thailand...
...2) they can consciously instill a sense of nationhood in their recruits but remain neutral in other ways (Israel...
...Egypt provides a classic example...
...The Brazilian purchase of an old aircraft carrier from the United States in 1956 serves as a case in point...
...For reasons which require no explanation, Formosa's aging legions are and will remain chained...
...Indeed, most officers are psychologically unequipped for the task...
...South Korea and Formosa have grown economically but only because of their "special relationship" with the United States...
...As the President of Peru recently commented, "1t the United States is not willing to sell us the planes we need, we will buy them from any other country willing to sell to us...
...Nkrumah, too, tried his hand at the game by establishing the paramilitary Workers' Brigade as a force competing with the army—but his experiment failed...
...Politically, these nations have little in common except for the central fact that none of them is characterized by total military rule...
...Beyond this acknowledgement of diversity, we must also respond to two fundamental issues: First, under what conditions, if any, does army rule in developing nations foster the growth of a liberal or social democracy...
...Even if these military forces are mere symbols of independence—as with Togo's 200-men force—America can ill afford to ignore this revolution in military expectations...
...Despite this economic incompetence of armies, the United States continues to support military regimes of various hues, contributing hundreds of millions of dollars a year to the goal of "military assistance...
...Government in these days is a consequence solely of military power": so observed the great Islamic philosopher, al-Ghazali, when describing Moslem nations in 1100...
...Indeed, because of a military background which assumes instant obedience, officers may suffer great disadvantages in a political realm requiring compromise between diverse interests...
...To fashion a rational American foreign policy, we must, of course, recognize these differences and understand, for example, that Nigerian officers who truly wish to play an apolitical role differ dramatically from Brazilian admirals who believe they stand above the nation as "guardians of the constitution...
...A thousand armed uprisings had scarred the first 100 years of her independent history...
...Can it, for example, fulfill its announced aims of creating unity, instilling discipline, and ending corruption...
...Thus, if an army in an underdeveloped country will create or allow a "social revolution," it can serve as a facilitating instrument in the development of a democracy...
...By 1950, when free elections were held and a multi-party system functioned, the tutelary military rulers voluntarily resigned their power...
...History has yet to provide definitive evidence but, tentatively, it appears that the answer is: No...
...Rather, it generally stunts the development of democratic institutions...
...The military rulers of Burma, Thailand, and Pakistan have merely perpetuated economic incompetence and stagnation...
...Whatever their worth in other respects, armies do not—and, perhaps, cannot— push their countries into that rarefied realm where the economy grows by more than 6 per cent a year...
...In Burma, as Lucian Pye has observed, "The Burmese army officer proved to be no superman for he was no more able than the Burmese politician to rise above his cultural and historical heritage...
...The creation of a United Nations army is a desirable goal in itself and our current expenditures for separate armies in the Third World could more usefully be spent in developing a U.N...
...South Korea has been able to make only token contributions to American forces in Vietnam...
...At the other extreme, Belgium left the Congo with a sad heritage of the "Force Publique," a bunch of hoodlums ready to do the bidding of anyone who offered sufficient loot...
...While a multi-party system in Nigeria has, at least temporarily, been replaced by military rule, semi-democratic governments survive in such unexpected places as Zambia, Tanzania, and Kenya...
...If civilian authority collapses and an army takes command of politics, how well does it govern...
...military force...
...Is it possible, as several observers have contended, that the army possesses a unique aptitude for providing modernizing skills and leadership, for serving as a powerful agent of social reform, and if necessary, for maintaining the discipline required when the people of the "Third World" experience the sacrifices involved in reaching the "take-off" point...
...for them, the only issue is whether a military government can economically modernize a nation more effectively than other forms of rule...
...rather, the army's withdrawal from politics seems due to a complicated web of intrigue, woven by individuals of good will and foresight as well as ambition and a greed for power...
...We may as well aim toward building a strong U.N...
...Army training can furnish a nation with cadres of literate men, educated in mechanical skills, imbued with a sense of discipline, and, at times, indoctrinated with a feeling of nationalism...
...Mexico's miracle can hardly be attributed to implacable historical forces...
...In the immediate future, our government can use its weight—specifically, in bilateral military assistance pacts—to support tendencies toward democratization and social reforms...
...Turkey's original military elite, led by Ataturk, initiated a variety of social reforms...
...On the contrary: "The basic conclusion is that, with higher economic levels, the outcome is as likely as not to be in the direction of a military oligarchy, and perhaps somewhat more likely...
...In Egypt military men run everything from textile factories to insurance companies...
...While some old generals protested Cardenas's reforms, they could no longer muster independent forces to carry out threats of revolt...
...After centuries of colonial rule, internal warfare, and government by warlords, Mexico effectively rid herself of militarism in the twenties and thirties...
...Then, in 1960, the military once again seized control, and Turkey's experiment with democracy encountered a tragic impasse...
...if the United States suddenly clamped down on armaments exports, many of the developing nations would simply take their requests to Western Europe, Russia, or China...
...Turkey's failure—as well as Mexico's success—seems to hinge on one crucial variable: the willingness and ability of the military to bring about a "pluralistic" social order where various groups (particularly peasants and workers) can compete with the army...
...As many observers have demonstrated, army officers in the new countries have been trained as infantry commanders...
...Official American policy condemns intervention by the military...
...President Cardenas, in the thirties, added the final touch by creating labor and agrarian organizations as a counterbalance to military influence...
...The sheer cost of maintaining a military establishment drains any economy of potentially productive resources and, to the degree that an army comes to dominate a government, the officers naturally tend to devote an increasing amount of the nation's wealth for their own enhancement...
...Americans view the dominance of armies in the developing areas with a high degree of ambivalence...
...Consequently, military regimes such as those of Pakistan spend at least 50 per cent of their official national budgets for armed forces while, at the opposite extreme, civilian governments like that of Tanganyika (before federal union) spend as little as 3 per cent...
...It seemed, for a decade, that a political miracle like Mexico's had occurred: a military elite had established a democracy...
...Generalizations of the Wallerstein stripe do little to illuminate the actual choices open to the people of developing countries...
...The dissenters have considered the role of people like Nasser as, at best, a necessary, albeit distasteful transition to some form of democracy...
...This tendency obviously continues today...
...They may fight well in tight tactical positions but they lack a strategic perspective— let alone the knowledge and specific talents—to run large-scale enterprises or to plan for sustained nation-wide economic growth...
...Military managers of plantations and mineral resources in Indonesia caused an actual retrogression of the economy...
...Such policies gained for the United States only the hostility of those forces which sought the dethronement of military dictators...
...In Ghana the military's dethronement of Nkrumah has encouraged the re-emergence of democratic institutions...
...The conflicting aspirations of these forces ended in shooting battles and undermined the regimes of four Brazilian presidents...
...Like Mexico, Turkey is one of the very few nations which began her modern history under the aegis of a military regime that sincerely desired both to modernize and democratize a feudal social order...
...Our support of military regimes in such nations as Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Cuba not only flaunted American ideals of representative government but contributed nothing to the goal of political stability...
...Clearly, the most striking economic advances have occurred in such diverse countries as China, Mexico, the Phillipines, and Malaya...
...His successor, Calles, and Galles' Secretary of War, Amaro, successfully fought to transform the federal army into a well-disciplined professional body...
...Third-World armies today serve almost every conceivable function except that of fighting...
...The fact that both sides used Western arms underscores the ineffectiveness of our policy in this region...
...The South-Vietnamese army itself (in spite of decades of French and American "advice") has proven increasingly, and now totally, ineffective...
...Oddly enough, determined generals themselves brought about the transformation through, as Edwin Lieuwen has put it, "a liberal use of Machiavellian techniques...
...If, however, the government in power refuses to allow change—as in Batista's Cuba, Trujillo's Dominican Republic, or Duvalier's Haiti— American military aid should end abruptly...
...Second, when, if ever, can a military regime quicken the pace of economic development and social reform...
...Prior to the establishment of a consensus concerning the goals of modernization, certain civilian segments of the community were allowed some political influence...
...The form of Latin-American militarism has gradually changed from a type of caudillismo (where temporary warlords allied themselves with the feudal order) to a new style where military coalitions with the urban middle and working classes have become normal...
...Perhaps the major political issue which confronts army rulers— assuming the purest of motives on their part—is how to forge a national consensus behind their policies of modernization...
...The logic favoring ultimate disarmament in developing countries seems irrefutable...
...In any two years out of three during this period, the army's revenue exceeded the entire government budget...
...This demonstrated inability of armies (although relative) to stimulate economic change can be traced to a central dilemma faced by the officer corps, a quandary which Edward Shils has nicely summarized: They [the officers] are not businessmen, and they are not civil servants with an ideology of economic growth...
...For some observers, however, such considerations seem irrelevant in the battle to end world poverty...
...And even if we broke these agreements, an inescapable fact remains: almost all of the developing countries clamor for their own armies...
...This possible evolution of Latin America should not, however, be considered as inevitable or as support for the view that the invisible hand of economic development always produces groups which will weaken the hold of militarists...
...There is, of course, one apparent difficulty in this position: army officers seldom carry out a social revolution...
...The record shows, then, that military rule has more often than not resulted in economic paralysis...
...In Iran much of the army spends its time guarding vehicles which have broken down on the road (sometimes military units will remain encamped besides a car for as long as three months) . And in Nigeria the 7500-men army tries its hand at the immensely difficult task of holding together some 55 million people in a tenuous federation...
...A squabble about the use of the carrier ensued between the Brazilian Navy and the Brazilian Air Force...
...All this is difficult for the military to understand and accept, accustomed as they are to the blind obedience of their inferiors, the dry voices of command, and the narrow horizon of their profession, which rarely encompasses the element of humanism...
...As the historian John Johnson has well demonstrated in his studies of Latin America, an evolution in military regimes can occur...
...and, in 1960, he successfully used the army and the air force to crush an abortive rebellion raised by their comrades in the Bodyguard and the police...
...Still, one may reasonably argue that army rule, while no more effective than civilian authority, may be inevitable in some cases and may provide a bridge toward democracy...
...This is more than the banal observation that armies often step into politics when parliamentary regimes have made a shambles of government and brought the nation to the brink of anarchy...
...In other words, if military rulers exhibit a genuine intent to "pluralize" their social orders, as Mexico's leaders did, assistance to them should be continued...
...Nonetheless, for a civilian outsider, these "bastions" hardly seem worth their immense cost...
...After reviewing the history of new nations, excepting Latin America, Morris Janowitz found little correlation between economic development and a decline in military pre-eminence...
...Some rulers, such as Haile Selassie, have proved themselves quite adept at manipulating their armies...
Vol. 14 • July 1967 • No. 4
