SEND IN THE PEACEKEEPERS

...Similarly, are comprehensive economic sanctions war-ranted in efforts to overthrow dictators of desperately poor nations, such as Saddam Hussein or Fidel Castro...

...Safe havens were created in Bosnia to protect civilian populations under siege, and U.S...

...Since then, UN or multinational forces have been sent to Somalia, Liberia, Rwanda, and Bosnia to establish conditions that allow humanitarian aid to reach pop-ulations threatened by state collapse, civil war, and geno-cide...

...Their involvement with mass suffering gives those groups a people-centered perspective on the unfolding of crises...

...In addition, humanitarian agencies often share with human-rights, religious, and similar groups what some call a "cos-mopolitan" approach to international affairs...

...The succession of humanitarian interventions over the last several years, with the consequent curtailing of a strong doc-trine of sovereignty, has given cosmopolitan views of inter-national affairs a new persuasiveness...

...Even private, voluntary groups may intervene in this way, as Witness for Peace did with its encampments in Central America...

...Pope John Paul II helped to define the fundamental grounds for intervention in his 1992 address to the Inter-national Nutrition Conference...

...Finally, two other forms of military intervention, deterrence and peace enforcement, involve a will-ingness to be involved in large-scale war fight-ing...

...Protective engagement, for example, uses troops to establish and maintain civilian safe havens and to protect aid convoys and refugee columns...

...This change in focus is natural, given that the distin-guishing feature of these recent interventions is their es-sentially humanitarian justification-to stop genocide, mass suffering, or widespread human-rights abuses...

...Of course international policy decisions will continue to balance state-based and cos-mopolitan considerations...

...Governments may intervene by coercive but nonmilitary means...

...It noted, even then, a need to establish political institutions to meet the crises that exist-ing international arrangements, long held hostage to con-cerns of sovereignty and competing national interests, could not...

...In other words, what means are permissible to use with what poli-cy goal...

...The encyclical identified the common good as the end of politics, and the global common good as the goal of international relations...

...The pope's main concern is to counter indifference in the face of these crises by arguing that the international community has not only a right but a duty to intervene...

...This is a duty for nations and the international community...

...While debate usually takes place over the use of troops and less often over the application of sanctions, intervention takes place in many forms...

...Some form of intervention was justified to restore the demo-cratically elected government and to stop human-rights abuses, but was military intervention justified...

...Humanitarian groups are often the new activists in international affairs, and it has frequently taken the foreign-policy elites a longer time to become convinced of the need for action in region-al conflicts and humanitarian emergencies...

...In such cases, more limited interventions, such as establishing "safe havens" in Bosnia that are pro-tected only by impartial peacekeepers, may fail morally be-cause though the ends are legitimate, the means are not adequate to achieve them...

...The United Nations force in Macedonia, for example, is intended to constitute a deterrent against ex-pansion of ethnic conflict in the Balkans...

...SEND IN THE PEACEKEEPERS Sovereignty isn't sacred Drew Christiansen & Gerard Powers During the cold war, when nuclear weapons were an overriding concern, much discussion on in-ternational ethics centered on the just-war stip-ulations regarding civilian immunity and proportionality...

...Each emergency, and each stage in each emergency, re-sults in its own ad-hoc solutions...

...In a country that lacks democratic traditions and where human-rights abuses do not rise to the level of genocide, should intervention be limited to lesser means, such as economic and political sanctions...

...The moral question is no longer, "Is it ever permissible to intervene in another country...

...In postconflict sit-uations, troops may be used to protect returning refugees, prevent renewed ethnic strife, and ensure peaceful elections...

...A few cases, like the prevention of genocide, may demand the use of military force when other means fail...

...When a state is not able or willing to defend the common good, defined in terms of basic human rights, it falls to third parties who can supply that protection...

...In short, humanitarian intervention takes myriad forms...

...Peace enforcement, the strongest form of intervention, involves full-scale mili-tary invasion to impose a solution, as the United States threat-ened to do in Haiti in 1994...

...To a considerable degree, the critics are correct, at least about the pressures for humanitarian intervention...

...With the experience of several inter-ventions behind us, the moral question is one of means, or more precisely, the linkage between ends and means...

...It can take the form of civilian measures such as election monitors in Serbia provided by the European Community...

...Peacekeeping troops, with the consent of the warring parties, monitor the cease-fire lines and oversee demilita-rization...

...Let us concede that, where genocide is threatened, large-scale military intervention may be justified...

...nor is it "What conditions, if any, justify intervention...

...The older prohibitions and inhibitions against intervention are increasingly overridden...

...Relief organizations in Liberia, where there has been on-again, off-again civil war, came to that conclusion last year...

...Protective engagement may be seen as a form of international policing...

...In the first post-cold war case, United States and Allied forces intervened in northern Iraq to feed and protect Kurds fleeing Iraqi troops after the Gulf War...

...Might there not be a threshold, even among types of sanctions, such that selective sanctions may be justified but comprehensive ones, adversely affecting an already severely needy popu-lation, may be morally unacceptable...

...It can be intrusive but nonvio-lent, as in Operation Lifeline Sudan, which for many years provided emergency relief to civilian populations in the Sudanese civil war against the wishes of the recognized local authorities...

...On the other hand, spokespersons for the traditional driving forces of foreign policy, like busi-ness and national security interests, are put in the awkward position of explaining why stopping genocide in Rwanda and starvation in Somalia are not vital national interests...

...For that reason, the international community is still trying to find a better way to respond to humanitarian emergencies...

...Does the involvement of relief organizations in certain types of civil wars demand the suspension of aid...

...Since the end of the cold war, when a se-ries of local conflicts have led to a number of humanitari-an interventions by the international community, the ethical conversation has dwelt on the limits of national sovereign-ty and the justifications for possible intervention...

...Since the pope is known for his re-luctance to endorse the use of force and his praise of the practitioners of nonviolence, the Holy See's calls for inter-national action in Bosnia and Rwanda have served to illu-minate his thinking about the restricted, but nonetheless morally imperative conditions under which intervention may and ought to take place and limited force may be em-ployed...

...Humanitarian agencies, of course, are on the ground, among the suffering people in global hot spots: with refu-gees, the innocent casualties of war, the victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing, and populations suffering from famine...

...Of course, a decisive moral threshold is crossed when moving from peacekeeping missions to those that call for limited use of force...

...The Catholic church has long held such a cosmopolitan view of international relations...

...Questions may even be posed to private actors...

...He told the conferees, "Hu-manitarian intervention [is] obligatory where the survival of populations and entire ethnic groups is seriously com-promised...

...Such coercive diplomacy includes the suspension of aid, denial of credit, boycotting of international events, suspension from membership in international organiza-tions, and arms embargoes...

...The pre-eminent tool in coer-cive diplomacy, of course, is economic sanctions (see Himes, page 13...

...More than thirty years ago Pope John XXIII's encyclical Pacem in terris recognized the limits of traditional statecraft for meeting the needs of the human family...

...In Bosnia alone, a whole array of international bodies are at work on a plethora of tasks: the NATO-led implementation force does peace-keeping, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees handles refugee questions, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe supervises elections, the World Bank handles reconstruction, the Office of the High Representative oversees civilian aspects of the Dayton ac-cords, and so on...

...Pope John Paul IFs admonition to the diplomatic corps in his 1993 address that "there is no right to indifference" when whole populations are at risk upholds the same view of international politics...

...In these exceptional cases, human rights trump principles of sovereignty and nonintervention...

...While humanitarian intervention often is understood to involve the use of military force in the internal affairs of a nation without its consent, the pope uses the term more broad-ly to refer to a range of diplomatic, economic, and military responses to politically generated humanitarian crises...

...By that they mean a view of international politics which, at least in some cir-cumstances, gives greater weight to human rights and the fate of people than to the prerogatives and interests of states and the customary routines of statecraft...

...Haiti is a different kind of case...

...In the light of several years' experience with UN-backed interventions, the pressing moral question now is not so much whether to intervene but how...

...Critics of humanitarian intervention often see it as a kind of international social work, driven by heartrending TV im-ages and political pressure from relief agencies, human-rights activists, and churches...

...But, in this era of humanitarian emergencies, policymakers, ethicists, and opinion makers need to make more careful examina-tion of the appropriateness of the means they recommend to the ends they pursue...

...troops were sent to Haiti to restore an elected government, staunch refugee flows, and further the process of democratization...

...Humanitarian intervention, despite its obvious shortcomings, has become a reality...

...A set of justifica-tions for intervention has been advanced and tested, and in some cases these considerations have led to action...

...Even military options need not involve the active use of force...