Busing and the courts
Ford, Maurice deG.
NOW THAT THE TUMULT & THE SHOUTING HAVE DIED I W!~1 111 ~ Busing & the courts MAURICE DeG....
...school system, be it by statute (as in the South) or official acts (as often in the North) that system is under a continuous Under the leadership of superintendent Robert Wood, the affirmative duty to eliminate the segregation "root and Boston public school system has been largely turned around...
...Kids stances the judiciary is well advised to refrain from learn primarily from their families and other kids...
...After a long trial, the federal district court judge ruled that, "Does everybody approve of this law...
...This had been done over the years by gerrymandering attend"Are the people doing anything to have the law ance zones, resulting in "an enclave of separate, black changed...
...NOW THAT THE TUMULT & THE SHOUTING HAVE DIED I W!~1 111 ~ Busing & the courts MAURICE DeG...
...Yet the Irish are seldom, even in times of protest, Education...
...Not anymore sir...
...it...
...A case is said to be a major factor behind "white flight," a controversial topic in itself...
...However, a seem to discount the significance of the social science tes- dramatic new development may be taking place on the West timony...
...the percentages have became synonymous with reactionary Southern attempts to increased today) concerning the percentages of minority stu- get around, or delay the implementation of, the demands of dents in our ten largest cities: the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment...
...My dissent is based on a conviction that the lasting only a short time, could have an incremental impact Court's opinions condone the creation of bad constituover the years greater than their individual immediate conse- tional law and will be even worse for public quences...
...From my own experience, I some white liberals that "whiteness" is a critical element of doubt whether any "outside" judicial panel could understand effective education for blacks...
...But the truth of the matter is that these questions have the country...
...It has been over twenty-five years ago may have only a very attenuated experience...
...It is unrealistic to assume that the hand of 1954 plays any major part in shaping the current school systems in either city...
...The Court upheld system-wide busing in "Re-assigned...
...Fourth, the majority's approach, focusing so much on racial ratios, appeared too narrow, and wooden...
...Again, Justice Lewis Powell: findings would be held "clearly erroneous" or not: "If Dis- These harmful consequences, moreover, in all likelitrict Court discretion is not channelized by a clearly articu- hood will provoke responses that will defeat the integlated methodology, the entire federal court system will ex- rative purpose of the court's order...
...R ecently, an advisory panel...
...Moreover, the context: first Coleman Report had demonstrated that mixing lowerOn even the most basic questions . . . scholars and class kids with lower-class kids, whatever their races, tends educational experts are divided...
...Had analysts of the problem of Northern school desegregation, the Court ruled the other way, it is a safe bet that Judge asks...
...These seem like purely empirical Roxbury integrated with white, upper-middle class Brookline questions, susceptible to the methodologies of the social sci- (which boasts one of the most innovative school systems in entists...
...that made this the greatest country in the world is During the year in which the complaint was filed in the trying its hardest, through the courts, to strip us of Dayton case, 43 percent of the students were black, but 51 of our alien rights...
...In Columbus, during the 1976 school year, "Yes sir...
...This language in the critical manner than is done by the Court's `lick and a promKeyes opinion was a major victory for the NAACP and civil ise' opinions today...
...We have provided you with a bus to...
...courts and the national legislature seemed finally to have "The State Board of Social Drinking, with the support been resolved in favor of the forces of liberalism and the rule of the Federal Board of Imbibers, has succeeded in of law...
...the Brown decision was rather amoral imperative...
...The courts won't even let him us for the '80s...
...THE NEIGHBORHOOD TAVERN Now the tumult and the shouting have died, considerably...
...As a result, it refused to order property tax be to divide Los Angeles into quadrants, for educational purequalization between central city and suburban school dis- poses, and integrate each one with contiguous suburbs...
...The prejudices of the school boards of 1954 confined to Los Angeles alone may not be (and earlier) cannot realistically be assumed to haunt sufficient to meet state constitutional dethe school boards of today...
...Both decisions are symbols fervor, asked when would the busing end...
...The Court of Appeals for FREEDOM...
...bus and Dayton school desegregation cases...
...getting a court ruling saying all taverns must be ethEven the streets of South Boston and Charlestown are nically balanced...
...1, focusing on segregation in Denver, Colorado, was result would be regarded in the light of history (let alone by decided in 1974...
...an educational disaster, a finding still undisputed...
...Wong himself over there, the owner of raised in "The Neighborhood Tavern" still remain to trouble your assigned tavern...
...gation lawsuit in the state courts...
...If public educa- Christine Rossells-trade jabs with the more conservative tion is not to suffer further," he stated, quoting from his Nathan Glazers, Richard Armors and James Colemans...
...Justice Lewis Powell wrote: rights groups, because once the burden had shifted, a school The Court's opinions in these two cases are profoundly board could almost never come up with enough contrary evi- disturbing...
...Whatever, shf, gives the heyday of the Warren Court, the cry of "States' Rights" us some very grim statistics (as of 1976...
...the Sixth Circuit affirmed these findings and an order for "You're right sir, but it seems that the very govern- systemwide desegregation, under which 42,000 of Columment of the people, for the people, and by the people bus's 96,000 pupils were reassigned to new schools...
...In simpler terms, do black pupils gain-if they gain-at that there was no conclusive evidence that black children the educational expense of white pupils...
...around 70 percent of the students were attending schools "Doesn't a man have the right to like beer drinking and which were at least 80 percent black or 80 percent white...
...the Columbus and Dayton, Ohio cases...
...shame to the white race" resulting from Martin Luther "I'm sorry, but I really can't do anything about the King's 1965 voting rights march...
...For the present moment, the the Brown decision itself was dependent on the famous foot- Court has put the damper on metropolitan desegregation note 11, citing Kenneth Clark's studies...
...societal interests a community may legitimately assert.' " He What is the current status of the debate...
...Northern context...
...Not only whites, of course, should defer to the findings of the district court judge, who believe in the neighborhood school...
...the federal judiciary should be limiting rather than The majority of the Court in both cases, with Justice White expanding the extent to which courts are operating the writing the opinions, held that school committee actions public school systems of our country...
...schools, nineteen of which black youngsters have been at28 September 1979: 527...
...Justice city-which, given the presumptions in Keyes, may be possiRehnquist felt vehemently that the majority's decision gave ble for enterprising civil rights lawyers to bring to pass-may littld guidance to district judges as to the grounds on which be self-defeating...
...Secondly, there was debate over how much reliance should believed that the neighborhood school fulfilled important be placed on the fact-finding capacity of a single federal societal interests-interests expressed in "The Neighborhood district judge, whose proclivities might have such impact on Tavern" ("We realize you have worked hard to buy this new so many...
...The panel is recommending a metropolitan crime or poor services or racial tensions or the quality of life desegregation plan, affecting over eighty suburban school or for some other reason or combination of reasons...
...PEOPLE, everywhere...
...the schools, which resulted primarily, he believed, from resi"You have to be kidding...
...ing in Boston, as it was to the later Dayton and Columbus But were the decisions good law...
...In simply individual preference...
...Yes sir, and if you think your plight is a rough one, Commonweal: 522 that is Mr...
...The last phrase is from a 1968 decision of the The federal receivership imposed on South Boston High Supreme Court in Green V. County School Board of New School by Judge Garrity has been lifted...
...The city of Los Angeles, with 63 percent of its stuso, where should judges look for the source of morally right dents minorities, has been the target of a prolonged desegredecisions in today's more complicated urban context...
...But with the door closed to this judicial remedy, not been answered with the kind of clarity one might hope for he was forced to bus black children from Roxbury into when the task is justifying...
...We took a citywide vote asking people if ing segregation, the Columbus school board, as of 1954 (the they approved and the results showed 15 to I against year of the Brown decision) had created a dual school system...
...has Minds have changed with respect to racial relation- concluded that school desegregation ships...
...During claim that there is no effect whatever...
...The Weber case, even more significant than "All I want is a beer...
...But the questions Kent County, Virginia, involving only two schools, one 28 September 1979: 523 black, one white, with a combined total of 1,300 pupils, schools in Dayton and Columbus was the result of fortuity or hardly a blueprint for massive urban school desegregation...
...Bringing in the suburbs will make them reluctant to order a metropolitan plan into effect not-only result in racial integration, but social class integra- soon...
...Busing, in fact, is hardly "Exactly...
...On July 24th, the "I'm really sorry sir, but if you want a beer you have to House of Representatives defeated, by a vote of 216 to 209, a get it at the tavern to which you have been reproposed constitutional amendment to ban court-ordered bus- assigned...
...keeping abreast of ever changing conditions...
...only yesterday were buttons and banners shouting RESIST, "Well, let's see sir...
...Surely so much power in the hands of one man(or woman) would seem to be at war with ideals of democracy, especially in the field of education, which the Court in Brown characterized as "perhaps the most vital function of state and local government...
...Perhaps the adjecsegregative design on the part of school authorities, and shifts tive `analytical' is out of place since the Court's opinions to those authorities the burden of proving that other segre- furnish only the most superficial methodology, a framework gated schools within the system are not also the result of which...
...Ah, here we are...
...Clearly the majority was aware of how an opposite No...
...Owen Fiss of Yale Law system-giving all children the experience of integration as School, one of the ablest and the earliest constitutional preparation for life in a democracy-all but impossible...
...Is it even possible such students do worse...
...Fear that such is the improved their scores through busing to white schools...
...We realize you have race neighborhoods, transfer policies and the use of optional worked hard to buy this new house and you chose it attendance zones which made Dayton, too, unconstitutionally because its being near your work and your children's segregated...
...J. S. FUERST & JIM BERGSTROM major proponent of school integration, James Coleman of the University of Chicago, has revised his belief that integration THE MOST IMPORTANT factor motivating the Supreme of black children with white children would necessarily raise Court, twenty-five years ago, to declare that segre- the educational level of black youngsters...
...as they reached the city limits of Montgomery, Alabama after "Hey, I want to drink with my friends, not a bunch of a "white power" march from Selma attempting to "erase the people I don't know...
...In expressing "having foreseeable and anticipated disparate impact are rel- these views, I recognize, of course, that my Brothers...
...Still, there is open the very important question of how much B UT NOT ALL hope is lost...
...school...
...Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Educa- majority's thinking ignored many other realities...
...School board actions "The life of the law has not been logic...
...Board of Education children is a central question, but the fight among psycholothere have been enormous improvements in the situation of gists about whether the mere placement of a black child in an American blacks...
...In such circum- to be...
...branch...
...For other reasons, liberal members of the California children within the confines of the central city to make mean- Supreme Court have been recently under attack, which may ingful desegregation possible...
...As suspicious that the disparate racial composition of the public Justice Potter Stewart wrote: Commonweal: 524 Much has changed in twenty-five years, in the Nation at large and in Dayton and Columbus in particular...
...evant to prove the ultimate fact, forbidden purpose...
...J. S. FUERST is Assistant Director of Urban Studies at Loyola Univer- Recently we studied these questions by following the readsity in Chicago...
...these findings as "clearly erroneous...
...In 1975, residents of Beale Street in "You mean that that poor fellow sitting over there at the bar had to be bused all the way from Chinatown, MAURICE deG...
...ing, with many Southern Congressmen joining the liberals...
...The proJustice but probably also from his own experiences as presi- integrationist sociologists-the Thomas Pettigrews and dent of the Richmond board of education...
...Under the "Yes sir...
...Jim Bergstrom is a Graduate Assistant in the Urban ing scores and population changes in forty integrated Chicago Studies Program at Loyola...
...of the schools were 90 percent black or 90 percent white...
...he now says that gated schools could not be equal was the deplorable such procedures may not help...
...I'm going home...
...His study only seems, as a practical matter, to defeat the promise of has shown how a metropolitan approach can be adopted while Brown...
...movement...
...Each side holds out its findin achieving desegregation with other educational and ings as objective social science...
...After all, didn't the Puritans come over cial concerns" and which "intentionally aggravated, rather here to escape religious harassment in search of than alleviated," racial separation...
...She says that "it Superior Court Judge Paul Egly, who is overseeing the litigaseems unlikely that we will ever know with any degree of tion, has concluded that school desegregation confined to Los certainty whether whites (and some middle-class blacks) are Angeles alone may not be sufficient to meet state constituleaving the city because of concern about desegregation or tional demands...
...dential living patterns...
...Bakke because of its impact on labor, was decided in favor of "I'm sorry sir, but you have been re-assigned...
...Since Brown vs...
...Nancy St...
...has sensitively criticized the notion of is much to be said for this view...
...A are motivated by purposes and ideals that few would number of violations, though affecting a few students and question...
...However, in subsequent years, the trial judge found in the tavern of his choice, here in America, a coun- that there had been a number of school board actions which try whose very existence was predicated on basic could not "reasonably be explained without reference to rafreedoms...
...Early this July they erupted in the opinion of get a drink in his own place...
...ought to be examined in a far more thorough and intentionally segregative sections...
...a judicial order coercing the lower-class South Boston and vice-versa...
...Aren't these very subjective determinations, leaving an inordinate amount to the discretion of the individual federal district judge...
...The glory imposing on the States inflexible constitutional re- of colleges like Harvard and Radcliffe is not the eminence of straints that could circumscribe or handicap the con- the professors, but what happens in the dining halls and in tinued research and experimentation so vital to finding bull sessions in the Houses as an extraordinary student body even partial solutions to educational problems and to exchanges ideas and feelings...
...This fall marks the fifth anniversary of the without their humor...
...It found a pattern of "Sorry sir, you and your family have been re-assigned teacher hiring and assignment, placement of schools in oneto a house in North Dorchester...
...affirmative action...
...sufficiently developed, in terms of controlling the variables This, however, has made racial integration within the Detroit and so on, to lead to much certainty...
...The violence which school boards " Or as the Supreme Court said in another took place is a scar in our national memory...
...subject to a continuing obligation to disestablish this dual "I think it's a rotten shame that a guy can't have a drink system...
...stitutional concept applicable to school cases...
...On the other hand, I may be biased in this view of his Fifth, to order system-wide integration in every large competence, because I share his ideological position...
...the 69 schools in the system were almost totally all-black or "I guess rather than going all away across town by bus all-white...
...But in spite of progress in school integra- all-white classroom promotes or undermines self-esteem and tion and improved educational opportunities, the rigidities in educational achievement is a relatively theoretical one...
...But the suburbs had contributed to pinning blacks into Detroit, they present techniques of social science evidence do not yet seem should not have to bear the burden of a metropolitan remedy...
...In spite of the was determined to force its ideology on the nation at the cost substantial costs often involved in relocation of the of intellectual dishonesty...
...But if it districts in Los Angeles County and many more in neighboris impossible to measure the precise impact of school de- ing Orange and Ventura counties...
...RESULTS FROM A CHICAGO STUDY Are integrated schools better...
...Now anti-busing forces have a majority on the cities in this land, is that there will soon not be enough Anglo board...
...They appear to endorse a whole new condence to avoid a system-wide busing order...
...the move...
...You're kidding...
...First, they believed that the majority placed too O LIVER WENDELL HOLMES wrote, in The Common Law, much reliance on pre Brown violations...
...His fulminations, in dissent in Columbus and segregated schooling within the system is not adventitious...
...segregation on `white flight,' it is equally insupportable to This represents a new twist on "States' Rights...
...Not surprisingly, liberal sociologist Thomas in the Detroit case rejecting metropolitan desegregation not Pettigrew has been one of Judge Egly's advisers...
...Once there had been a finding of purposeful segregation in a P.S...
...versity...
...Justice Stewart, who concurred in the Columbus house and you chose it because of its being near your work decision, dissented in Dayton...
...In Keyes, the Court held "that a finding of intention- tive history, Justice William Rehnquist believed that the ally segregative school board actions in a meaningful portion Weber decision was more of a tribute to Houdini than to of a school system . . . creates a presumption that other Humphrey...
...And, assuming that a Northern school committee did commit a few mortal sins prior to 1954, when will the judicial lash get off its back...
...We have a attempt to muster forces, 198 robed Klansmen were arrested . bus to take you there 'and back...
...I'm sorry sir, but you can't come in here anymore...
...tion, a still unanimous Supreme Court, with Chief Justice In its Weber decision, the liberal majority reminisced on Warren Burger writing the opinion, approved busing on a what Hubert Humphrey must have thought about equal oplarge scale, although still in the context of the traditional portunity in employment...
...demonstrates that many parents view these alternatives Third, the dissenters believed that it was simply unrealistic as preferable to submitting their children to court-run to pretend, through a series of legal "presumptions," that school systems...
...At the beginning of August, in almost a comical, last-gasp "No sir, but don't feel too badly about it...
...Is it particularly harmful to Garrity would have ordered children in black, lower-class blacks...
...Today he is everybody's favorite son for the presiSupreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of dency...
...more moderate president, Howard Miller, who lost in a recall The harsh truth in Los Angeles, as in almost all of the large election...
...to progress in the way they would in most, if not all, white Recently, moreover, studies have proliferated questioning schools, where the standards and services are of greater qualwhether black youngsters placed in white schools perform ity...
...FORD teaches law and psychiatry at Harvard Uni- just to have a beer...
...But in California, New Jersey and Connecticut, civil The proposed metropolitan solution to the problems of Los rights lawyers have persuaded state supreme courts that the Angeles has, of course, not been without opposition...
...FORD suburban Brookline, the birthplace of John F. Kennedy, awoke one morning to see emblazoned on the pavement, BUS LAST MAY marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of the TEDDY...
...His upbringing, be it happenstance liberal or conservative, may determine the pattern of education for a whole city as much as the objective facts before him-if there are any "objective facts" anywhere...
...despite the absence of a state statute (as in the South) mandat"Oh no sir...
...At the Equal Protection Clauses of the state constitution should be end of May, Roberta Weintraub, an arch-foe of busing, was more broadly interpreted to recognize the centrality of educa- elected to the Los Angeles Board of Education, replacing its tion and to order tax equalization among school districts...
...Certain combined degree programs-for example, Cleveland 62.9 percent the Public Policy Program of the John F. Kennedy School of On the city with the highest percentage of minorities, DeGovernment-are trying to give young lawyers and law stu- troit, the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 vote, shut the door to dents exposure to the language of mathematics and statistical metropolitan desegregation...
...For example, in avoiding the administrative nightmare of a single massive 1974, the Burger Court ruled that, for purposes of the Equal metropolitan school district...
...The majority, to him, emestablishes, in other words, a prima facie case of unlawful braced "a novel analytical approach...
...In its reading of legislarulings...
...The debate open before the situation...
...school board were purposely motivated to cause this effect...
...Moreover, four events, occurring this spring and summer, "What do you mean CAN'T...
...It seems morally wrong as well...
...quiet...
...Recently, an advisory panel Diane Ravitch has written one of the most thoughtful of social science, legal and educational experts, appointed by analyses of the "white flight" controversy...
...John of the on the overall educational achievement of the school populaUniversity of Massachusetts reviewed 120 studies and said tion...
...As the Burger Court has Los Angeles 63 percent pulled back from, or refused to extend, the rulings of the Chicago 75 percent Warren Court, state supreme courts, interpreting state conHouston 65.8 percent stitutional provisions, have begun to fill the void...
...schools on the near east side of Columbus...
...protecting the buses from Roxbury...
...Professor Derrick Bell of tended to be thoroughly familiar with the local scene...
...Justice Powell then cites controversial sociologist James "This condition results," wrote Justice Lewis Powell, Coleman's warnings about the dangers of "white flight""primarily from familiar segregated housing patterns, the same Coleman whose famous 1966 report, Equality of which-in turn-are caused by social,- economic, and de- Educational Opportunity, had been the bible of integramographic forces for which no school board is responsible...
...One of the cleverest handbills passed implementation of Judge W. Arthur Garrity's ruling in the out in South Boston saloons at the height of the anti-busing Boston school desegregation case...
...I say "I think," because, despite much exposure to Miami 59 percent both sides of the controversy, my training as a lawyer simply Baltimore 75.6 percent doesn't provide me with the tools to decide which side is Dallas 61.9 percent "right...
...The most efficient approachProtection Clause, education was not a `fundamental con- one which would cut down on long distance busing-would stitutional right...
...This represents a new twist on are both examples of the dramatic growth and change in "States' Rights...
...KnowlDetroit 81.3 percent edgeable liberal lawyers are beginning to go into state courts, Philadelphia 68.2 percent in states like New Jersey, Connecticut and California, in an Commonweal: 526 attempt to bring about progressive change...
...It Dayton, were almost as acerbic...
...You concurring opinion in Keyes, " `we must return to a more can read about it all in the pages of the Harvard Educational balanced evaluation of the recognized interests of our society Review and The Public Interest...
...These cases pro"Well 'sir, I think they refer to it as an attempt to vide the best reference point for assessing the current status of promote quality social drinking...
...school boards were accountable for urban school segregation...
...Yet the suburban noose that the Burger Court approved tion as well...
...In very thorough opinions, he pro- family or in resort to private education, experience tested that this was not "the rule of law...
...The federal district court ruled, nonetheless, that to have a beer, I'll just stop at the local package store the plaintiffs had failed to prove that acts of the Dayton and pick up a six pack...
...busing and that elusive goal-equal educational opportunity...
...the Justices of a badly divided Supreme Court in the Colum"What's the idea of the whole court ruling...
...There Harvard Law Schooj...
...urban school districts...
...Parents, unlike perience the disaffection which accompanies violation of school officials, are not bound by these decrees and Cicero's maxim not to `lay down one rule in Athens and may frustrate them through the simple expedient of another rule in Rome.' " He believed that the liberal major- withdrawing their children from a public school system ity, in both Columbus and Dayton and in the Weber decision, in which they have lost confidence...
...tricts...
...If Coast...
...The opinBut how does one define "intent to segregate...
...No longer does the Tactical Patrol Force of the police, "You mean there has to be a representative percentage dressed in riot gear and on motorcycles, roar down the streets of each ethnic group in every bar in the city...
...The our school systems, and in our housing and living arrange- real-world question is whether in the types of all-black ments, have considerably slowed the "deliberate speed" schools that are almost universal, youngsters have any chance mandated by the Supreme Court...
...Is segregation harmful...
...The dissenters' criticisms break down into five main groupings...
...What the Hell are you talking about...
...A lot of people are boycotting the bars...
...How harmful is it...
...But we've taken them out of here and I A majority of the Supreme Court affirmed the Court of understand we'll re-assign you to another job loca- Appeals' conclusions in both cases and spelled out the applition shortly, so you shouldn't be all that upset with cable principles of law, as they had evolved since Brown...
...AT THE PACKAGE STORE While there had been some discriminatory policies twenty years earlier, the trial judge found that they did not have a "I'm sorry sir, I can't sell you a six pack, you've been continued causal impact on the present racial composition of assigned to a package store in Allston...
...Dayton and Columbus mands...
...The logical progression of the Court's decisions education-an element of American life that is essenfrom Brown to Green to Keyes dictated that Columbus and tial, especially for minority children...
...The to the future of school integration and white resistance to point, inferred if not explicitly stated, is that integration, at busing, and that is whether integration has a negative impact least educationally, may not be useful...
...Dayton must disestablish, and so they must...
...If their children are bused the complexities of the Boston school case with as much across town by court order, how meaningfully can black parsavvy and sensitivity as Federal District Judge W. Arthur ents participate in the day-to-day monitoring of their chilGarrity, who came to know just where the skeletons were dren's education...
...Almost "Where have I been assigned...
...Yet the Court of Appeals reversed SIGN ON THE FRONT DOOR...
...pect, many of the Justices must have asked -themselves how the Chief-Chief Justice Warren, of course-would have THE FIRST MAJOR Northern case, Keyes v. School District voted...
...I've been coming here seem to mark a decisive turning point in the Civil Rights for years...
...You mean they want the Scotch and water drinkers from one part of the city to rub shoulders with the THE COLUMBUS and Dayton cases presented the issue of beer drinkers from another part in order to help the how much court-ordered busing may be required in a beer drinkers to improve their drinking habits...
...Author unknown, of the federal judiciary's attempt to insist on the rule of law in it is entitled: the face of massive resistance...
...He believed that the Court and your children's school...
...In Columbus and Dayton, I susSouthern dual school system...
...Or deter- ions seem remarkably insensitive to the now widely mine whether a given set of school board actions-or, accepted view that a quarter of a century after Brown inactions-have had cumulative system-wide impact...
...Perhaps more importantly, generations have changed...
...For these reasons, I simply cannot accept the shift in the litigative burden of proof adopted by the Court...
...In Milliken v. Bradley, the Court techniques in order to help them better to sort out social ruled that since there had been no conclusive proof that the science evidence and apply it in public law litigation...
...Inconclusive, I 28 September 1979:525 think...
...condition in virtually all the public schools serving predomi- Whether integrated education improved the skills of black nantly black children...
...There is a second question, however, of equal importance any better...
...tionists until he changed his mind in 1975...
...The experience of the majority made it highly link to the racial composition of urban schools today...
...Justice Powell THE "WHITE FLIGHT" controversy has been the subject of was the main spokesman for this view, speaking not only as a extensive academic debate and bitterness...
...Half thus have the right to choose beer drinking...
...an issue in this year's mayoralty campaign in Boston...
...To the dissenters, however, the 1971, id Swann v...
...buried...
...Oh yes, Lim NEVER!, SOUTHIE IS MY "ROOTS" and BUS JUDGES, NOT Ling Wong's Bar and Grille, in Chinatown...
...The Keyes opinion was an important cor- the present generation of blacks)-a retreat from the promise nerstone to Judge Garrity's decision to order large-scale bus- of Racial Justice and Equality...
...But Brown decision, therefore, the Columbus school board was so far, they have been unsuccessful...
...New York 69.5 percent Today the pendulum has shifted...
...Most scholars now as far as the federal Constitution is concerned...
Vol. 106 • September 1979 • No. 17
